Tourism Employment in Nordic Countries

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

This chapter makes a case for the examination of tourism employment in a Nordic context. It briefly outlines the policy relevance of tourism employment before describing how Nordic countries share labour market characteristics and policy contexts, while also drawing attention to differences. Brief reviews of tourism and tourism employment relating to the five Nordic countries are offered before the structure of the book is outlined.

Andreas Walmsley, Kajsa Åberg, Petra Blinnikka, Gunnar Thór Jóhannesson

Chapter 2. Guides on a Crossroad: Between Deregulation and Entrepreneurship

Abstract

Working conditions for certified guides in Copenhagen are undergoing a rapid transformation, due to deregulation, disruption from tips-only based tour guides, and the influx of the so-called “guide lights”. The development is fuelled by a fast-paced growth in tourism, which at the same time operates with slim profit margins. Hard fought for rights are lost, and now more than ever the certified guides have to adjust to still more precarious working conditions, while they balance their role as knowledge entrepreneurs, creating and shaping their own work. This chapter explores how certified guides, their union The Association of Authorized Tourist Guides and their education The Tourist Guide Diploma Programme are being transformed in the wake of the fourth industrial revolution.

Jane Widtfeldt Meged

Chapter 3. Tourism Employment and Education in a Danish Context

Abstract

This chapter explores the role of tourism as an employment opportunity by looking at the size and key figures of the Danish tourism sector. Attention is drawn to Denmark’s unique labour market conditions, which impacts employment in the tourism and services sector and discusses the challenges of seasonality, low education levels and digitalization. The chapter ends with a case study of a competency development project in Denmark and discusses how continuous education of small to medium-sized enterprises can leverage new digital knowledge and skills in order to help meet the challenge of low education levels in the sector.

Ida Marie Visbech Andersen

Chapter 4. Tourism Work: Public Management of the Tourism Workforce in Finland

Abstract

The chapter is built on the basis of the public management of tourism workforce in Finland and it provides an overview on how project-based development is used as a tool in answering the challenges the industry faces in terms of finding skilled employees. The chapter considers also the structural challenges that cause the lack of skilled tourism workforce in Finland. The national tourism policy in a Finnish context is explored through development projects. Project MatkailuDiili is introduced as an example of a public initiative to tackle the challenges. The way tourism work is presented has an impact on the acquisition of skilled workforce and close attention should be paid to how the industry is discussed by public instances.

Anu Harju-Myllyaho, Maria Hakkarainen, Mari Vähäkuopus

Chapter 5. A Potential Treasure for Tourism: Crafts as Employment and a Cultural Experience Service in the Nordic North

Abstract

Crafted souvenirs, craft-based service production and an increasing interest in creative tourism are enabling job opportunities in Nordic North, where tourism as an employer is growing fast. However, tourism offers mainly seasonal jobs and leads to the erosion of local culture if services are not authentic. Based on the interviews and service design workshops, the authors have studied the needs and expectations for craft-based services among crafters in Finnish Lapland. Crafters are lifestyle entrepreneurs who see tourism as necessary for their livelihood but hesitate to commit to large-scale tourism collaboration. Continuing education, networking, joint spaces for producing creative tourism services and a common label support not only crafters in finding employment but also cultural sustainability of the area.

Outi Kugapi, Maria Huhmarniemi, Laura Laivamaa

Chapter 6. Hardworking, Adaptive, and Friendly: The Marketing of Volunteers in Iceland

Abstract

Volunteering, at times combined with tourism, has expanded globally. In this chapter, we explore the marketing of volunteers in Iceland with a focus on the requirements concerning the performance of tasks, skills, personality, and the attractions offered by the hosts. All the online advertisements that appeared on two volunteer recruitment websites ‘Workaway’ and ‘HelpX’ on 27 February 2017 and 27 February 2018 seeking volunteers were analysed. We show that the hosts, who straightforwardly formulate their demands and attractions, prefer the volunteers to be flexible, hardworking, well-mannered, and friendly. The volunteers are expected to perform diverse tasks, mostly unskilled but also to enjoy nature, animals, and family life while learning the ‘Icelandic way’ through work. They are not seen as altruistic individuals but rather as voluntourists.

Jónína Einarsdóttir, Guðbjörg Linda Rafnsdóttir

Chapter 7. On the Move: Migrant Workers in Icelandic Hotels

Abstract

Iceland has experienced a rapid increase in tourism in recent years, which has resulted in a labour shortage and concomitant demand for migrant workers in the sector. Today, approximately 10,000 immigrants are employed in tourism in Iceland, accounting for around 30% of the employees in the tourism industry. Based on a case study of three hotels in Iceland, this chapter sheds light on experiences of migrant workers. Our aim is to describe the experiences of migrant workers, both the challenges and opportunities associated with working at rural hotels in Iceland. The focus is set on two occupations, namely receptionists and housekeepers and on how socio-spatial organisation of different jobs at hotels shape opportunities and limitations for occupational and geographical mobility. The discussion underlines that tourism work is performed in multilayered relations, which grant or prevent access to workers mobility.

Margrét Wendt, Gunnar Thór Jóhannesson, Unnur Dís Skaptadóttir

Chapter 8. “You Need to Consider How It Looks in the Eyes of the Guest”: The Work of Teenage Girls in Tourism in Iceland

Abstract

Tourism in Iceland is seasonal in rural areas. The number of jobs has increased significantly and the industry has responded by recruiting young people. This study sheds light on the important part young people play in the socio-economic context of tourism in Iceland with focus on teenage girls under the age of 18 years. The study’s aim is to explore (i) their perspectives on working in the tourism sector (ii) the terms of their employment and (iii) their job satisfaction. The findings reveal that the girls enjoy and feel proud of their work in tourism. The tourism industry needs adolescents to maintain the industry and its economy. Action must be taken by the industry to improve training and recruitment practices for the young girls.

Anna Vilborg Einarsdóttir, Laufey Haraldsdóttir

Chapter 9. Migrant Workers in Tourism: Challenges of Unions and Workers in the Icelandic Tourism Boom

Abstract

Migrant workers in tourism are a growing concern of labour unions in Iceland, in wake of a gold rush like situation following rapid growth in tourism. In the chapter these developments are explored through interviews with local unions. The wider context is the labour movements actions against social dumping of migrant labour, in times of neoliberal influences on labour market relations. The results indicate that despite of high union density, breaches of collective agreements, housing of migrants and placement at the bottom of the wage scale contribute to precarious situation of many migrant tourism workers. Industry actors and authorities are urged to provide a better safety net for migrant workers, in line with discourses of responsible tourism and inclusiveness of the Nordic model of industrial relations.

Magnfríður Júlíusdóttir, Íris H. Halldórsdóttir

Chapter 10. Employee Motivation and Satisfaction Practices: A Case from Iceland

Abstract

This chapter sheds light on some of the human resource (HR) challenges that are related to job satisfaction and motivation among front desk hotel employees in Iceland. It reviews which employee motivation and satisfaction practices are being used, and how employees and managers view the role of the HR department dealing with these challenges. Findings, based on interviews with both managers and employees from a hotel chain in Iceland, suggest that the HR department seems somewhat distant from the mundane work. There is no universal approach or system in place to monitor or manage job satisfaction and motivation that applies to all hotels within the chain and the practices that are applied are developed mostly by individual hotel’s management rather than centrally.

Magnus Asgeirsson, Paulína Neshybová, Brynjar Thor Thorsteinsson, Ester Gústavsdóttir

Chapter 11. Managerial Practices of Co-creation and Psychosocial Work Outcomes

Abstract

This chapter contributes to knowledge about managerial practices related to co-creation and how these practices are connected to psychosocial work outcomes. The analysis identifies six particular practices that managers in different service companies apply to their work, these are: (1) conditioning for flexibility in co-creation; (2) fostering co-creation competence among staff, (3) mediating social support from customers, (4) providing a safe space to ventilate emotions, (5) moderating multicultural dialogue, and (6) “getting them to see the whole [service chain]”. These findings are discussed in the light of Nordic leadership and the ethical challenges of providing decent and meaningful work in tourism.

Olga Gjerald, Trude Furunes

Chapter 12. Seasonal Workers as Innovation Triggers

Abstract

The authors discuss innovation potential in tourism industries and ski resorts in light of migrant seasonal workers. It is argued that seasonal workers may on given occasions be highly important for innovation, in contrast to dominant perceptions of employees in tourism. This is due to some segments of seasonal workers’ unique position as boundary spanners between destinations and communities of practice. One premise for this is that lifestyle work motives and dedication to leisure activities dominates their decision to take on seasonal work. Seasonal workers’ mobilities between destinations render them a role as “vehicles of knowledge flows” and their work position as front-line personnel as well as good knowledge of customer needs, gives them opportunity to disclose weak product elements and transfer knowledge between destinations.

Birgitta Ericsson, Kjell Overvåg, Cecilia Möller

Chapter 13. Gateway, Fast Lane, or Early Exit? Tourism and Hospitality as a First Employer of Norwegian Youth

Abstract

Hospitality and tourism employment are gateways into working life for young people, but international evidence is mounting that the tourism youth employment experience is increasingly fast, furious, and short. Formal apprenticeship systems are one possibility for the tourism industry to attract and train a stable and competent workforce, but there are signs that this model may be aging. In response to this perspective, this chapter interrogates a Norwegian dataset pertaining to apprenticeship entrants’ first encounters, expectations, and experiences in the industry. We find, by examining the newcomer socialisation literature, that both apprentices’ experiences, and their expectations, are leading to undesirable outcomes. We conclude that this is discordant with the industry’s developmental duty of care responsibilities and the symbiotic relationship it has enjoyed with young workers.

Åse Helene Bakkevig Dagsland, Richard N. S. Robinson, Matthew L. Brenner

Chapter 14. Labour Mobility in the Tourism and Hospitality Sector in Sweden

Abstract

In this chapter labour mobility in the tourism industry in Sweden is investigated. A comprehensive longitudinal database on individuals is used to determine the extent of mobility in different industries, and in the tourism and hospitality sector in particular. Logistic regression is used to determine the effects of different variables (both individual and work-related factors) on the propensity of individuals to change workplace. Mobility is significantly higher in the tourism sector than other sectors, in particular in hotels and restaurants. When controlling for a number of personal and work–life-related factors these differences still remain. The findings are discussed from the perspective of structural and cultural differences between sectors, and the possibility of a “culture of mobility” in tourism and hospitality.

Mats Lundmark

Chapter 15. Downshifting Dutch Rural Tourism Entrepreneurs in Sweden: Challenges, Opportunities and Implications for the Swedish Welfare State

Abstract

This chapter offers a much-needed exploration of downshifting in the context of lifestyle migration and tourism entrepreneurship. Analysing results from 12 interviews with Dutch tourism entrepreneurs in rural Sweden, it draws attention to gender issues in male and female reasoning around motivations for migration and their daily business practices. It illustrates gender differences in downshifting, since more women work in tourism, while men find employment in other sectors and in less rural areas. The authors relate this with social and spatial inequality in the Swedish welfare state. They conclude with reflections on implications of increased downshifting practices for Sweden, and suggestions for future research.

Marco Eimermann, Charlotta Hedberg, Urban Lindgren

Chapter 16. Sustainable Tourism Employment, the Concept of Decent Work, and Sweden

Abstract

This chapter considers the sustainability of tourism employment in Sweden. Examining current understandings of tourism employment through discussions of sustainable human resource management and decent work (following the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically Goal 8), the chapter asks if tourism employment can be sustainable. The chapter reiterates that there remains a lack of empirically grounded, relevant literature on the sustainability of tourism employment and utilises data from a qualitative systematic review of literature to explore these issues in relation to Sweden. The chapter finishes with positive examples of sustainable initiatives from the Swedish tourism industry but concludes that without meaningful engagement at many scales and with many stakeholders, the sustainability of tourism employment, and the capacity for decent work in tourism, remains dubious.

Tara Duncan, Anna Gudmundsson Hillman, Jörgen Elbe

Chapter 17. A Labour Regime Perspective on Workforce Formation in Nordic Tourism: Exploring National Tourism Policy and Strategy Documents

Abstract

This chapter adopts a public policy perspective to tourism workforce formation in Finland, Norway and Sweden. The qualitative content analysis of national tourism strategy, planning and policy documents reveals that aspired labour regimes are predominantly characterised by mobility, flexibility and segmentation. While these practices ensure a competitive operational environment, satisfy seasonal employee demand and provide means for states to integrate immigrants into the labour market, negative societal consequences including precariousness, low-quality employment and inequality arise as well. Although all examined documents advocate sustainable production and consumption for Nordic tourism, workforce is essentially not included in sustainability discourses and initiatives.

Dorothee Bohn, Cecilia De Bernardi

Chapter 18. Battling the Past: Social, Economic, and Political Challenges to Indigenous Tourism Employment

Abstract

Arctic explorers have traditionally viewed the North as unexplored frontier, minimizing the role of Indigenous inhabitants. Today, despite exponential growth in Northern tourism, Indigenous peoples are minimally and under-employed, continuing a troubling pattern of economic and social marginalization. In categorizing the challenges to Indigenous employment in the tourism industry identified through a case study literature review, three themes of obstacles emerge: economic and socially extractive practices, contentious social norms, and legal obstacles. The rhetorical content and historical, political, and economic components are each examined, and five considerations for tourism development given to promote employment equity. As the Arctic continues to garner international interest, the ‘Nordic case’ reveals the need for sustainable and inclusive tourism employment across circumpolar states and for Northern futures.

Ellen A. Ahlness

Chapter 19. Hospitality Through Hospitableness: Offering a Welcome to Migrants Through Employment in the Hospitality Industry

Abstract

The chapter explores one of the under-conceptualised paradoxes of migration in the contemporary world. Brought to us through the work of Derrida (1999, 2000) and others, newly settled migrants, still very much guests in their own right, are widely asked to deliver the hospitality that welcomes fellow guests (tourists) to a community and destination. The paradox lies in expectations of this welcome, with its overlays of place, stories, representation and culture. Through four narratives showing immigrant experiences of integration processes of migrant workers within the hospitality industry in Norway, the chapter addresses the complexity of this paradox and engages with the role changes from guest to host that take place during the journey to integration. Finally, the chapter discusses managerial implications and suggests possible solutions.

Tone Therese Linge, Trude Furunes, Tom Baum, Tara Duncan

Chapter 20. Tourism Employment in Nordic Countries: Trends, Practices and Opportunities

Abstract

In this chapter, we review and comment on some of the common themes that have threaded their way throughout the text. We highlight similarities and differences in areas pertinent to tourism employment such as decent work, different facets of migration, youth employment and education, the precarity of tourism work and employment relations. The chapter culminates in a loose agenda for future research distinguishing between avenues in existing areas of research where further detailed work may lead to new insights, and new areas of research that present themselves given developments in the macro-environment (e.g. socio-political changes or technological developments).

Andreas Walmsley, Kajsa Åberg, Petra Blinnikka, Gunnar Thór Jóhannesson

Backmatter