A major contribution of our study is the development of a grounded theoretical model that comprises the following main findings (see Fig.
2): Distinct pattern of network participation mainly characterized by either a
task-based network identity—composed of an individualistic network identity, a single achievement motivation, and a largely instrumentalist orientation towards network participation—or a
joint-motivational network identity—composed of a collectivistic network identity, joint network motivation, and a largely value-laden attitude towards network participation—is related to distinct (non)leadership phenomena in our networks. Our findings suggest that a task-based network identity is related to a leadership void (i.e. no single participant emerged as a leader, nor did the collective become engaged in leadership processes), whereas a joint-motivational network identity is related to shared leadership (i.e. the members developed alternative network-sensitive conceptions of being influential as well as network drive in terms of collective efforts in practice). Further, we found that network coordinators are relevant by providing support for leadership development—however, not in terms of traditional leadership, but in a more indirect and subtle preparation of context and processes, considering identity-related issues, in particular.
Our study’s findings contribute to the following main fields: first, we advance understanding of (non)leadership phenomena in collaborative interorganizational networks, a phenomenon that up to now has been little understood. Beyond that, and in keeping with our interpretive grounded theory approach, we seek to relate our study’s findings to matching theory, and to sketch out how far our grounded theoretical concepts advance corresponding theory. In our case, shared leadership emerged empirically. Therefore, second, we were able to advance theory on plural forms of leadership such as collective or shared leadership. We shed new light on the generative mechanism of shared leadership by revealing the relevance of joint-motivational network identity as an energizing source of shared leadership development. Further, we offer conceptual progress on how to distinguish jointly constructed shared leadership processes from other collective-level phenomena (e.g. team cooperation or system-wide organizing processes).
5.1 Advancing understanding of (non)leadership phenomena in collaborative interorganizational networks
Our findings contribute to better understanding of leadership phenomena in collaborative interorganizational networks, in particular concerning leadership at the neglected (interpersonal) interaction level without disregarding relevant conditions related to the network level (e.g. Huxham and Vangen
2000; Feyerherm
1994; Denis et al.
2001; Ospina and Saz-Carranza
2010; Weibler and Rohn-Endres
2010; Miles et al.
2010; Müller-Seitz
2012; cf. our literature review). An initial finding of our fieldwork is that the networks either developed shared leadership or cooperated “leaderless” (i.e. established a leadership void). Our fieldwork shows that embeddedness in a peer-like work setting based on the lack of a priori existing formal guidance structures may significantly affect participants’ views on how to be influential and how to “lead” or “be led” in such a way that single leader emergence—in terms of direct or individual leadership—is thwarted in all of our network cases. For example, we found a sense of network embeddedness among the participants that involved rejection of status differentiation. Regarding leadership, this means that even an individual’s potential higher status was not seen as providing the source of accepted influence necessary to grant leadership to such an individual. These findings are striking and counterintuitive, because it might be expected that a person who—for good reason, such as significant expertise and engagement—“stands out objectively” (as emphasized by a network participant), would emerge as a leader (Stone and Cooper
2009). Indeed, general research on leader emergence showed that an individual emerges as a leader based on “credits” ascribed to him or her by the other group members, for example, the individual’s high competence or outstanding contribution to the achievement of group goals (e.g. Hollander
1974; Stone and Cooper
2009 for an overview). In contrast, our work shows that this is not the case and suggests that organizational contexts actually exist in which participants, such as those in our networks, successfully strive to maintain the informal peer-like setting, and collaborate in a way that no single individual is granted a leading influence.
Our study concretizes this phenomenon by adding that networks are not necessarily “leaderless” or a “leadership-free zone”. Rather, leadership is vitally needed; however, it emerged only in the collective form. Our fieldwork showed that, given embeddedness in a peer-like networked context, participants developed context-sensitive alternative (i.e. non-individualistic and more relational) conceptions of being influential, which—under certain circumstances (as described in our model)—led to collective efforts by the network as a whole (i.e. network drive and shared leadership development). These aspects of our findings echo the relevance of plural leadership forms, such as collective or shared leadership, in collaborative interorganizational networks (Denis et al.
2001; Huxham and Vangen
2000; Ospina and Saz-Carranza
2010; Weibler and Rohn-Endres
2010; White et al.
2016).
Moreover, we have identified distinct types of network identity as a significant condition for the emergence of the observed different network leadership phenomena. As described in our model, a task-based network identity is related to a leadership void, whereas joint-motivational network identity is related to shared leadership development. Since identity emerged as a key concept for better understanding network leadership phenomena in our context, we draw on literature on identity and developed two network-specific identity conceptions. Before we continue to discuss our theoretical contribution in this regard, we provide information on the concept of identity relevant for our study’s context and contribution.
In keeping with our social constructionist leadership approach, we subscribe to an understanding of identities as socially constructed phenomena that are dynamic and fluid in nature (Ashforth et al.
2008,
2011; Gioia et al.
2013). In line with Ashforth et al. (
2008: 327), we refer to identity as “a self-referential description that provides contextually appropriate answers to the question”
Who am I as individual? (individual identity) or
Who are we as organization? (organizational identity) (Ashforth et al.
2008; Corley et al.
2006). According to Corley et al. (
2006: 87), organizational identity refers to a “self-referential meaning where the self is the collective” comprising self-definition, values, and affect as its core. From a social constructionist perspective, an organizational identity is seen as being defined by the members of an organization “to articulate who they are as an organization” and, thus, primarily involves “the labels and meanings that members use to describe themselves and their core attributes” (Gioia et al.
2013: 127). In our study’s context, the network’s identity also involves a collective-level motivational concept (i.e., “joint motivation” as contrasted with “single achievement motivation”). We, therefore, labelled this newly developed identity concept a “joint-motivational network identity”.
Our study inductively linked a collective or network level identity (i.e. in terms of an identity held by the network; cf. Corley et al.
2006; Ashforth et al.
2011) with (collective) leadership emergence. In contrast, research on leadership identity still focuses on the individual level of identity (i.e. in terms of an identity held by an individual). A leader identity can be defined as a “sub-component of one’s identity that relates to being a leader or how one thinks of oneself as a leader” (Day and Harrison
2007: 365; cf. Epitropaki et al.
2017). Because of the emerging network-specific nature of the identity constructions found in our investigation, we add to this understanding the notion of leader-and-follower identities as contextualized phenomena emerging from social interaction processes (Collinson
2006; DeRue and Ashford
2010). However, even this interaction-oriented leader-identity perspective usually conceptualizes single leader emergence (i.e. the development of either a leader or a follower identity). In this context, leadership identity researchers traditionally emphasize that (effective) leadership emergence requires clear role differentiation and clarity in individuals’ identities as leader and follower. For example, DeRue and Ashford (
2010) highlight that strong and effective leader–follower relationships imply that there is clarity in the individuals’ identities as leader and follower. They describe a process by which individuals jointly co-create their respective identities as leaders and followers—via processes of claiming and granting leadership among each other—and thereby construct a leadership relationship. Overall, and although considering relevant dynamics of the social construction of leadership, they remain at the individual-level of identity as the source of leadership, in that they focused on the differentiation of either a leader or a follower identity. Similarly, Lindgren and Packendorff (
2011) referred to individual-level identity concepts when studying the emergence of shared leadership.
Hence, even when plural forms of leadership are studied, such as collective or shared leadership, existing leadership identity approaches neglect organizational or collective level identity conceptions (i.e. in terms of an identity hold by an organization or network) as a (potential) source of leadership emergence (cf. Epitropaki et al.
2017). That is, existing leadership identity approaches usually do not consider the possibility that neither a leader nor a follower identity will emerge. Hence, DeRue and Ashford (
2010: 642) finally called for further research on leadership identity that extends their work “by considering the process [of identity construction] at the group level” and on what happens when “less emergence of a well-defined leadership identity” might probably occur in certain contexts. This is indeed what we empirically found in our contexts, in that our data did not bear out an identity differentiation between leader and follower. Moreover, we were able to move beyond that by revealing that the network participants developed a joint-motivational network identity. This network-identity fueled the cultivation of alternative conceptions and practices of being influential as a network collective. On this basis, network participants developed network drive in terms of collective efforts and thus finally enacted shared leadership. Overall, we advance the study on collaborative interorganizational networks by elucidating relevant network internal functioning mechanisms related to (non)leadership phenomena, and in particular by revealing the collective nature of network leadership, and the joint-motivational network identity-based energizing source of its emergence.
5.2 Advancing theory on plural leadership forms such as collective or shared leadership
Collaborative interorganizational networks have recently been considered to be particularly fruitful contexts for examining emerging shared leadership—not at least given their lack of formally (a priori given) guidance structures. For example, Sergi et al. (
2012) argued that these settings provide “fertile grounds for exploring the ins and outs of collectivistic approaches of leadership” (
2012: 406; cf. Denis et al.
2012; Endres and Weibler
2017). Since, in our context, shared leadership processes emerged empirically, we draw on literature on shared leadership study and relate our emerging findings to this field. Shared leadership is a plural form of leadership which involves leadership being collectively shared among different people, and constructed in interaction (Avolio et al.
2009; Denis et al.
2012; Nicolaides et al.
2014). Shared leadership fundamentally has been defined as “an emergent state where team members collectively lead each other” (Avolio et al.
2009: 431; cf. Pearce and Conger
2003; Day et al.
2004). Hence, shared leadership may not be localized in any individual who conducts a superior role; rather it is a collective-level phenomenon which is embedded in a web of dynamic relationships (Avolio et al.
2009; Endres and Weibler
2017; Fitzsimons et al.
2011). Shared leadership (and related plural leadership forms such as collective and distributed leadership) is among the most momentous emerging themes in leadership research (cf. for recent overviews Denis et al.
2012; Fitzsimons et al.
2011; Dust and Ziegert
2016; Nicolaides et al.
2014; Endres and Weibler
2017). Given these instructive overviews, the discussion on the various forms and perspectives is not repeated here. Instead, and in keeping with our methodological/paradigmatic foundation, we draw on perspectives of shared leadership that study leadership as socially constructed through interactions, and as embedded in a web of relationships and context (Endres and Weibler
2017; Sergi et al.
2012; Fitzsimons et al.
2011; Uhl-Bien
2006; Hosking
1988 cf. our theory section). Pursuant to extant literature, we use the terms shared leadership—as characterized above—and collective leadership interchangeably (cf. Avolio et al.
2009: 431; Nicolaides et al.
2014); however, we point to their socially constructed and relational basis (Endres and Weibler
2017; Fitzsimons et al.
2011; Sergi et al.
2012).
Despite the considerable amount of insightful contributions, a key problem in shared leadership study is still how to grasp and conceptualize emerging shared leadership processes that are embedded in interaction and relationship dynamics among individuals, and thus on how to distinguish such plural leadership forms from other interaction related collective level dynamics, such as cooperative teamwork or similar (Denis et al.
2012; Endres and Weibler
2017; Sergi et al.
2012; Crevani et al.
2010). Hence there is a need to better understand how shared leadership actually occurs. Therefore, Endres and Weibler (
2017: 231) called for “more explorative studies that approach leadership phenomena inductively, and thus do not start with ‘leadership’ or what is assumed to be leadership, but rather with interaction dynamics and practices as they occur in a specific setting”, in particular, when trying to study plural forms of leadership. That is, the emergence of those demanding collective level leadership forms should be empirically evidenced. Based on their critical interpretive synthesis of research on social constructionist leadership, Endres and Weibler (
2017) argue that the consideration of influence processes in terms of leadership manifestation may help to reduce the risk of diluting the distinctiveness of leadership. Basically, this means, conceptualizing a phenomenon as leadership involves the identification of emerging flows of influence processes at either the interpersonal or collective level (or both). This, however, is particularly challenging for the collective level, i.e. for identifying shared leadership phenomenon, a constellation in which no single individual is identifiable as the source of influence, rather the collective is. Hence, a key question is how to make such elusive dynamics such as emerging (informal and collective) leadership tangible if no single individual’s influence emerges as network leadership (Blom and Alvesson
2015; Denis et al.
2012). For that reason, in order to qualify general collective interaction related dynamics as leadership, in place of (traditional) individual level influence components, collective level components are needed to capture a collective’s influence and to understand the generative mechanism of its emergence. We address both of these problems. Our emerging concepts’ main contribution here is twofold: first, the cultivation and enactment of network-sensitive conceptions of being influential, and in particular the finally emerging concept of network drive in terms of collective efforts as a network, capture the influence component at the collective level in place of the missing leadership-related influence activities from single individuals. These emerging flows of influence represent the collective “leadership manifestation”, which is a conceptual prerequisite for collective or shared leadership (Endres and Weibler
2017: 222). Second, joint-motivational network identity with its components collectivistic network identity, a largely value-laden attitude towards network participation, and joint network motivation, captures the underlying energizing source of shared leadership development. On the basis of our study’s findings, we offer advancements in a more precise theoretical framing and study of plural leadership forms, such as collective or shared leadership, than existing literature has done (e.g. Crevani et al.
2010; Lindgren and Packendorff
2011; Huxham and Vangen
2000; Denis et al.
2012). We suggest setting a high bar for conceptualizing collective phenomena in terms of shared or collective leadership (cf. Endres and Weibler
2017; Sergi et al.
2012; Blom and Alvesson
2015)—that is, to identify collective level influence processes and the joint-motivational identity-based (energizing) source of its emergence in the respective context. This implies taking the non-emergence of leadership more seriously into consideration. Our study provides a rich description of, and new insight into, non-leadership (i.e. a leadership void in one of our networks in which no single participant emerged as a leader, nor did the collective become engaged in leadership processes). Therefore, our findings echo the relevance of non-leadership phenomena for understanding leadership in contemporary organizations more comprehensively (cf. Alvesson and Sveningsson
2003; Alvesson and Spicer
2012; Blom and Alvesson
2015; Chreim
2015).
5.3 Practical implications
Collaborative interorganizational networks provide a challenging context for “leaders” in traditional terms, since single leadership—as the still dominant and widely spread leadership understanding in the business and organization context—obviously seems not to be the way of leadership that fits into this context. This applies even despite the finding that leadership is called for and considered as crucial for fruitful forms of network participation. Our findings suggest that network coordinators or individuals with similar roles should understand that, in the network context, participants feel significant, yet sometimes implicit, aversions against single leadership (e.g. based on the observation that status differentiation is rejected) and, more importantly, that the networks probably either develop shared leadership or established a leadership void (i.e. cooperated leaderless). Hence, network coordinators or managers should accept being sidelined, whereas network participants as a collective clearly gain center stage, and may develop shared leadership. However, this will occur only under certain circumstances, which relate to the described identity-based energizing source of its emergence. Our study’s findings suggest that the revealed processes of shared leadership development are neither self-organizing nor another type of self-leadership. We argue that shared leadership may be fostered through a context-sensitive influence on members’ network identity. For example, network identity-related processes may be forged in a way that they may transcend members’ perception of “I as part of the network” and develop a sense of “we as a network” (i.e. in terms of a joint-motivational network identity). This implies, for example, moving beyond evidencing the benefits of the network for the members in a dominant instrumentalist way (cf. the BlueNet case). Rather, coordinators should consider becoming engaged in creating a kind of open space in terms of an
identity enactment scene, which allows exploring commonly held and identity enhancing ideals and values (cf. Wellman
2017; Kourti
2017). To create such a space, it is important to understand—besides meeting the structural and administrative requirements for network functioning—that interactions must be nourished to acquire the adequate dynamics within networks (cf. Larson and Wikström
2007). This implies maintaining an informal atmosphere to forge an open and unbiased exchange that is respectful and non-judgmental, and that may ease emotional expression, and to move beyond a rational and pure instrumentalist attitude towards the network. Our study’s findings concerning the importance of an informal atmosphere without status differentiation echo recent theorizing by Wellman (
2017: 612), who, for example, suggests that “downplaying formal job titles” among other things may support shared leadership development among group members. Further, communication styles should relax from focused efforts to convince others. Rather, curiosity and a learning orientation should be fostered along with listening, which might include engaging in sense giving (Clark et al.
2010) and forging a learning environment (Weibler and Rohn-Endres
2010).
There may be further possibilities in framing a network coordinator’s function and roles (e.g. network coordinative and managing functions, such as acting as relationship manager, integrating and connecting participants). During our fieldwork, we intended to understand whether this may be relevant; however, we finally found that these aspects of the network coordinators’ functions were less relevant in understanding the specificity of the leadership-related phenomena in our networks. Rather, the identity-related themes seem to provide more ample scope for supporting shared leadership development. Hence we focused on these aspects, a procedure which is in line with our methodology; it is neither intended nor possible to provide a complete description of emerging empirically grounded phenomena (cf. Charmaz
2014; Suddaby
2006).
5.4 Limitations and opportunities for future research
Our contributions must be viewed in the light of potential limitations of our study. First, it is possible that our participants withheld information from us, particularly information that might cast a negative light on their values and motivations for network participation or their ways of exerting influence. However, this problem has probably been mitigated, because we considered multiple perspectives from different data sources, and we looked for coherence in our data (Charmaz
2014). For instance, in the early phase of our research we were surprised by the somewhat striking “harmony” in the network settings. We tried to better understand this phenomenon and learned successively that our participants developed a certain and basically very relaxed attitude toward consensus finding and included this as a subcategory in our analysis. Because nobody is compelled to do anything in the network, the collective (leadership) processes that were revealed and appeared to be extremely harmonious are not “always present”, and not are easily achieved. Shared leadership will only emerge “voluntarily” based on participants’ ideas, values, and actual concerns. Thus, even though differences may exist, they do not necessarily always have to be fully resolved. Second, it was neither possible nor intended to provide an all-encompassing description of facilitators’ and interaction dynamics, e.g. related to network evolution or relationship development. Rather, and in line with our grounded theory approach (and its core procedures of constant comparison and theoretical sampling), which implies focused coding and selections, we focused on inductively derived themes that more accurately advance understanding the focal processes of non-leadership emergence and shared leadership development, as summarized in our model. Nevertheless, and third, we recognize that our suggestions with regard to the network level outcomes are an initial step. That is, given our network-centered perspective the assessment of outcomes focuses on the network level and neglects other possible outcomes. Therefore, future research should expand this perspective and assess (ideally various forms of) outcomes at the member organizations’ level. Fourth, although our study’s findings include individual level dimensions in terms of value orientation and (motivational) orientations towards network engagement, further individual-level/intra-psychical or intrapersonal characteristics such as our participants’ personality structures are potentially also relevant and thus deserve further investigation. Finally, concerning the transferability of findings to other contexts, we described the contextual conditions and mapped the domain of our network cases. Based on this, we argue that our suggestions for shared leadership development are limited in their applicability to traditional organization contexts; rather they apply to the core domain of collaborative non-hierarchical network contexts and similar cooperative and low structured organizational settings (e.g. self-managing and self-governing teams/organizations). Future research should further develop our key concepts in relation to other contexts. Beyond that, our grounded theory model provides ample scope for studying various relations in depth. For example, future research should explore in more detail the content of the values and orientations related to joint-motivational network identity. This should involve the study of potential “negative values”, which—in contrast to the positive values of network members in our context (cf. RedNet)—would probably not contribute to the common good. Concerning the motivational dimensions of our model, it would be promising to study in more detail how probably existing participants’ individual level motivation could be lifted to the (collective) network level.