Clean Energy Investments for Zero Emission Projects

Carbon emission refers to the release of carbon gas into the atmosphere. As can be understood from the definition, carbon emissions mainly cause air pollution. Polluted air also threatens the health of living things. As can be seen, carbon emission is a problem that needs to be solved urgently. In this context, many countries are trying to take measures to reduce carbon emissions. Carbon emissions do not only cause air pollution. For example, carbon emissions cause significant problems in the country’s economy. First, because of the increase in people getting sick due to air pollution, serious job losses occur in the country. This situation leads to a decrease in the production volume of the country. In addition, the profitability of firms with reduced workforce is likely to decline. As a result, the country’s economic growth will be negatively affected. In addition, the increase in the number of patients in the country because of carbon emissions will increase the health expenditures of the country. Finally, carbon emissions cause a decrease in foreign investments in the country. It is obvious that air pollution caused by carbon emissions reduces the quality of life in the country. In this context, there has been an increase in sensitivity to environmental factors worldwide, especially in recent years. This situation makes the carbon emission problem more important. The amount of carbon emission has started to affect the image of countries. In this framework, foreign investors have started to pay attention to environmental pollution issues while choosing the country they will invest in. As can be understood from this, it is obvious that countries that do not take measures to address the carbon emission problem will experience a decrease in their foreign investments soon. Therefore, it is necessary to avoid the carbon emission problem. Carbon emissions can be prevented by legal regulations and sanctions. Sanctions may be imposed on companies that cause carbon emissions. Additional tax may be imposed on nonrenewable energies. Since these types of energy pollute the air with carbon emissions, it may be possible to collect a carbon tax. In this way, the cost advantage of nonrenewable energy types will disappear.

In this study, it is aimed to determine the most accurate renewable energy investment alternative for developing economies. In this context, firstly, a very large-scale literature analysis was made. As a result, four different issues were identified that could have an impact on this decision. Financial analysis contributes to the determination of the efficiency of investments. Another factor to be considered in the selection of the optimal clean energy investment is customer satisfaction. Customer expectations should be taken into consideration when making investment decisions. Technological investments are also very important in this process because renewable energy investments involve complex engineering steps. Additional factor to consider in the selection of the most suitable renewable energy investment is personnel quality. By considering these four different factors, a decision-making model is created to identify the most optimal renewable energy alternative. For this ranking, the MAIRCA method based on expert opinion was preferred. The most optimal renewable energy alternative has been determined as geothermal energy. Secondly, biomass was determined as the most suitable renewable energy type. Geothermal energy and biomass energy types were followed by wind, solar and hydroelectricity energy types, respectively. It has been determined that hydroelectricity energy type is the most unsuitable renewable energy type. Considering the results obtained, it would be appropriate for developing countries to prioritize their geothermal energy investments. In this context, the types of risks encountered in this process should be determined. In addition, actions specific to these risk types need to be taken. This will allow the risks to be managed effectively. In this way, it will be possible to increase the performance of geothermal energy investments. One of the most important risks in geothermal energy investments is the damage of water resources. Otherwise, there will be significant reductions in water resources. This situation will cause some problems especially in agricultural production. Insufficient water resources will lead to a decrease in the production of agricultural products. Therefore, it would be appropriate to pay attention to this issue in geothermal energy investments.

Carbon emissions seriously harm the environment. Countries have started to take different actions to solve this problem. Green HRM is one of the measures to be taken to solve this problem. For environmentally friendly energy consumption, the quality of the personnel working in the enterprises is also important. The solution of the carbon emission problem will be easier if the environmental awareness of the employees is high. In this context, businesses should pay attention to these issues in the recruitment process. In other words, candidates with a high level of this awareness should be preferred. On the other hand, necessary training on environmental issues should be given to the personnel currently working in the enterprises. In this way, it will be much easier to save energy. This will contribute to environmentally friendly energy consumption.

Global warming causes drought in the world so that agricultural production will decrease. With less production level, people’s access to food will be difficult. As a result, there will be an imbalance of supply and demand and the problem of inflation will arise. Furthermore, health problems will occur as people cannot eat properly. Due to climate changes caused by global warming, there is also a decrease in water resources. The preference of fossil fuels in energy production is one of the most important reasons for this. As a result of the burning of resources such as coal and oil to produce electricity, a significant amount of carbon gas is released into the atmosphere. Therefore, countries need to increase their clean energy investments. However, the costs of these energy alternatives are very high compared to fossil fuels. This situation does not attract the attention of investors. Therefore, to use clean energy instead of fossil fuels in energy production, the level of awareness on this issue should be increased. The European Green Deal also focuses on solving this climate crisis. In this context, it is aimed to use environmental resources more consciously and efficiently. It is possible to mention certain aims of this study. First, the European Green Deal aims to produce without harming the environment and nature. On the other hand, the elimination of pollution is one of the aims of this study. In this framework, it is argued that the energy sector should be decarbonized and investments in environmentally friendly technologies should be increased.

In this study, we use monetarist approach to answer the question of what determines the demand for international reserves. We show that real imports, volatility of balance of payments and import propensity are important determinants for the demand for international reserves. The negative sign we found for elasticity of average propensity to import supports that it is not a measure of openness but a proxy for adjustment cost. Additionally, significant and high value of coefficient of volatility of balance of payments shows that a rise in international capital mobility did not make volatility less important for central banks for their international reserve demand. Additionally, we discuss that level of reserves is crucial for a stable and sustainable economic growth. With the results showing that import propensity is a proxy for adjustment cost, we underline that holding optimal level of reserves is as important as sustainable energy consumption for stable growth.

The aim of this study is to determine the motivational factors affecting the intention of buying organic food consumer profile in Turkey. At the same time, it is to determine how these factors affect the purchase intention. It is determined that the motivation factor that most affects the consumers’ intention to purchase organic food is the natural ingredient element. Other effective motivational elements following the natural content are the following. It has been observed that the good physical health of the products, the price of the products, and familiarity with the products are effective. The results of the research will contribute to the determination of marketing strategies of organic food brands and the policies of the authorities regarding organic agriculture. Organic products also help to achieve energy efficiency. Thanks to organic farming, energy use is significantly reduced. Using less energy will also reduce carbon emissions. This will facilitate the fight against the climate crisis. Therefore, it is important for states to support investments in organic agriculture. In this context, lower taxes from these investors will help the projects to provide cost advantages. In addition, it is important to increase technological investments on this issue. These points will contribute to the reduction of the climate crisis problem.

Turkey’s energy needs are increasing in parallel with the increasing industrialization and population. To meet its increasing energy needs, Turkey needs energy sources that are more sustainable and in line with zero-carbon emission targets. Although fossil fuels can meet the energy needs, they are not energy sources suitable for Turkey’s targets. Because there are not enough fossil fuel reserves in Turkey, fossil fuels are not sustainable and fossil fuels cause high carbon emissions. Therefore, renewable energies and nuclear energy come to the fore. Turkey continues to invest in renewable energy, but renewable energy investments in the country will not be sufficient to meet the anticipated energy demand in the future. Thus, the best alternative option for Turkey is nuclear power plants. The main purpose of Turkey’s nuclear power plant projects is to protect energy resources, ensure energy security, reduce environmental pollution, and reduce the total cost of all electricity generation, but deciding for a nuclear power plant site is a very strategic and complex process. In this study, criteria for determining the right location in Turkey’s nuclear energy investment projects were determined and the relevant literature was examined. The seismic activity and population density of the region where the power plant will be established should be low, and the availability and sufficiency of cooling water in the said region should be high. Appropriate topography of the region will increase the safety of the reactor to be established and environmental sensitivity will protect the biodiversity and natural resources of the region. In addition, the power plant area should be built away from airports and areas of high terrorist activity to prevent aircraft crashes and terrorist attacks. Finally, cost is an important criterion for nuclear power plant projects. A cost-oriented approach to site selection will increase the efficiency of these projects.

One of the primary objectives is to achieve a stable and sustainable growth of the economies. Economic sustainability will be possible with a clean and sustainable environment. Therefore, minimizing carbon emissions caused by economic growth should be the primary goal of sustainability. This study examines the effects of economic growth and energy use on carbon emissions in the countries with the highest carbon emissions, based on the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). The analysis period of the study covers the years 1990–2016. According to empirical findings, the variables of GDP per capita (lnkbgsyih) and energy use (lneuse) are statistically significant. There is a statistically significant relationship between these two variables and the dependent variable. When there is a 1% increase in the lnkbgsyih variable, there is a 1.3% increase in the lnco2 variable. A 1% increase in the lneuse variable results in a 0.7% increase in lnco2.

Financial methods of risk management are considered in detail. The analysis of foreign studies on the application of mathematical methods of risk management has shown high prospects for using the method of network analysis (ANP) in the renewable energy sector. Examples of new forms of risk management are given, such as the use of weather derivatives, climate modeling, and integrated multi-risk contracts. The current state of renewable energy shows the significant place that this industry has occupied in the global energy markets. The established total capacity of renewable energy projects and the amount of electricity generated by them already allow us to talk about the creation of a new energy transition, which is taking an increasingly important place in the energy complexes of many countries around the world. In the period 2000–2019, the total capacity of renewable energy plants (solar, wind, and biomass power, excluding traditional hydropower) increased by more than a third of the previous year. 22 times from 56 GW in 2000 to 1246 GW in 2019. In 2018, more than 180 GW of renewable energy capacity was put into operation, including 100 GW of solar photovoltaic installations. Globally, more renewable energy capacity is now being introduced annually (about 67% in 2018) than all new fossil fuel capacity. By 2019, the total capacity of renewable power plants in the world was 1246 GW, including wind power-591 GW, solar power-505 GW. Wind farms (WPPs) operated in more than 90 countries, with wind power generating up to 5% of total energy consumption in 24 countries, and more than 10% in 13 countries. Nine countries now have more than 20% of solar photovoltaic and wind generation in their energy mix. In 17 countries, the capacity of renewable energy (excluding large hydroelectric power plants) exceeds 10 GW, and in 45 countries, it exceeds 1 GW. In Africa and developing Asia, nearly 150 million people have gained access to electricity using autonomous solar photovoltaic systems.

An analysis of environmental and economic efficiency, risks, and prospects for the development of energy based on various types of energy carriers, starting from the 1960s, is carried out. It is shown that the decline in the share of nuclear power in the global energy balance cannot yet be compensated by renewable energy sources and leads to an increase in the use of fossil energy carriers. It is concluded that in order to achieve sustainable development of non-carbon energy, it is necessary to develop renewable and nuclear energy where the risks of environmental consequences of energy production are minimal. The purpose of this work is to identify and compare the role of nuclear power plants (NPPs) and various types of renewable energy sources (RES) in the formation of a non-carbon energy system, the growth of ecological and economic efficiency and to analyze the risks and prospects for the development of multipolar energy. Based on statistical and analytical data, this article examines the dynamics of global non-carbon energy development in the second half of the year XX—the beginning XXI V., comparative assessment of trends and patterns of development, correlation of nuclear power development with changes in environmental parameters and environmental efficiency of various types of energy. Comparative estimates of the economic efficiency of energy based on various energy sources are presented, with a discussion of uncertainties and risks in relation to nuclear power plants and renewable energy sources and their impact on the prospects for the development of energy based on non-carbon energy sources. A comparative assessment of the economic and environmental-economic parameters of nuclear and RES power plants indicates the continued high competitiveness of nuclear power plants both in the economic sense and in terms of minimizing environmental damage. The identified trends and analysis of environmental and economic indicators indicate that nuclear energy is a necessary component, along with renewable energy, of the process of transition to a non-carbon regime and reducing risks to the environment. Analysis of data from the last 50–55 years and current trends indicates the feasibility of developing both renewable and nuclear energy on the basis of mutual complementarity rather than confrontation.

Hydrogen, as a potential energy carrier, has certain physical and environmental advantages, and the promotion of ideas and plans for the development of the “hydrogen economy” is most often explained by environmental considerations—the need to decarbonize the economy. Currently, a number of regions, primarily in the Western Europe and Japan, have announced large-scale plans to increase the production of hydrogen, with the implementation of ambitious scenarios—by an order of magnitude, and the share of hydrogen in the energy balance should grow to 20% or more by the middle of this century. The chapter discusses plans for the development of the hydrogen economy in the world and in a number of regions. Technological, environmental, and economic barriers to implement ambitious growth scenarios for hydrogen production and consumption are identified, and the feasibility of these scenarios is assessed. The widespread claim about hydrogen as a decarbonizing agent and the validity of the ecological argument of the hydrogen economy are disputed. A number of possible real reasons for promoting the ideas and plans of the hydrogen economy are considered. Hydrogen has been produced and used for a long time, but in recent years there has been a strong increase in interest in it as a potential energy resource, and the term “hydrogen economy” has become widespread, and a number of countries have announced plans to multiply the production of hydrogen. In recent years, many publications have appeared on hydrogen topics in various formats, including books, articles, and materials from numerous forums and conferences. We can say that the interest in hydrogen as a potential energy source has become explosive. First of all, hydrogen is positioned as an environmental-friendly fuel that does not leave a “carbon footprint when burned”, and the growth of its production and use is considered in the context of “decarbonization” (decarbonization) and reduces resource consumption.

The results of calculations of the energy potential of crop production waste for municipalities of the Krasnodar Territory are presented in this article. The analysis was carried out for the main agricultural crops such as cereals, sunflower, and corn. The results show a significant amount of potential of the region in comparison with other agricultural regions of the South of Russia. The spatial distribution makes it possible to determine the localization of the most promising areas for the use of crop waste for energy production. The global use of bioenergy has reached almost 60 EJ, accounting for 10% of the world’s total energy production. However, the plans of the world’s leading bioenergy associations are even more ambitious: for example, the reference point for the development of bioenergy in Europe until 2030 is the Graz Declaration (2017), one of the main goals of which is to halve the use of fossil fuels by 2030 and replace it with energy from biomass. In practice, the implementation of these goals in the EU is carried out by a number of research and innovation programs, the largest of which is the Horizon 2020 program, for the implementation of which about 80 billion rubles were allocated in 2014–2020. In 2016, the project of this program has ended Euro Pruning, in 2019, the project was completed in January 2019, and the current project was launched Agro Bio Heat. The aim of this project is to ensure the widespread use of agricultural plant waste for energy production in the European Union. Within the framework of the projects, estimates were made of the amount of plant residues, including agricultural waste, pruning of perennial plants (orchards, olive groves, and vineyards), agricultural processing waste (olive seeds, nut shells, etc.), which accumulate in large volumes in rural areas. Efficient logistics schemes for short and reliable biomass supply and use are being developed use it as fuel. Logistics solutions include harvesting, transportation and storage of agricultural waste. It is expected that the energy use of agrobiomass will have a positive social impact on the regions, namely, it will create additional jobs and prevent the outflow of young people from rural areas.

Air transport is currently carried out with conventional aviation fuel derived from petroleum. However, it has been known that this fuel is not sustainable. The sector functions with many constraints due to its nature. Many problems need to be considered, such as mandatory aerodromes, capacity constraints, high labor costs, and of course, mandatory rules that must be endured for safe flight. When fuel, which is the biggest cost item, is added to all these, the strategic side of the management perspective becomes a more sensitive issue. In this context, the aim of the study is to develop various strategies to provide competitive advantage to airline companies with sustainable fuel management. The latest studies in the literature have been analyzed in this respect and as a result, various strategies have been proposed for airline companies to provide sustainable competitive advantage.

In today’s world, the use of fossil fuels continues intensively. However, the decrease in raw materials and the damage caused by fossil fuels to the environment every day encourage countries to develop policies toward sustainable energy resources and to introduce legislation for the use of these resources in their domestic legal systems. Another situation that encourages the orientation toward sustainable energy sources is the military intervention of countries against each other or the possibility of such a possibility occurring at any time. It can be said that this situation also caused unpredictable increases in fossil fuel prices. In addition, a country’s dependence on foreign energy is a situation that directly affects its economic independence. As a result, the use of clean energy resources is increasing day by day due to many reasons mentioned above, and legal regulations are made for this. In this context, the main purpose of the study is to try to deal with wind energy, which is one of the sustainable clean energy sources, and its application and procedure in Turkey in the context of the Turkish legal system. In addition, the choice of wind energy in the study can be expressed as the most common among renewable energy sources.

Energy management is of critical importance for airports, whose amount of energy is almost equivalent to the energy consumption rate of a small city. Airports, which directly affect sustainability at social, economic, and environmental levels, are also closely monitored by environmental organizations. In recent years, airports have been taking energy-saving measures to reduce their emission rate and carbon footprint, as well as reducing energy costs, and tending to use renewable energy sources. In this study, it is aimed to discuss the renewable energy sources used in airports in the context of sustainable energy management through application examples. In this context, a deep literature review was made and airports using renewable energy sources were examined. As a result, it has been determined that which renewable energy sources can be used at airports varies according to the type of airport, the characteristics of the geography, and available resources, and many airports use renewable energy sources.

The Renewable energy consumption is promoted nationally by various organizations and countries due to its environmentally friendly feature within the measures taken against the global climate crisis. Wind energy, which is one of the clean energy sources, can provide important environmental, economic, and social contributions. Wind power plants, which have been increased in Turkey, are causing social change within environmentalist views, thanks to the benefits. Social views on environmentalism can characterized as a driving force for development by forming the social footing for the spread of renewable energy. Thus, public consciousness is seen as with cause and effect. The environmental awareness of individuals living in Çanakkale city, where Çanakkale Wind Power Plant, one of the wind power plants producing the largest amount of electricity in Turkey, is located. The study was carried out with 591 participants by a survey method in Çanakkale. According to the results of the research, the education variable is the most important factor in environmental awareness. The place of residence of individuals is both the cause and the result of education.

Clean energy production is becoming the basic need of countries day by day in order to reach the zero-emission target. In particular, energy production with the opportunities offered by nature constitutes the first energy policy of countries. Contrary to the positive effect of clean energy production on environmental factors, significant investments are needed in terms of cost. Especially the high initial setup and operating costs of clean energy-producing facilities and long installation phases are perceived as two essential factors for clean energy. This part of the book includes a statistical analysis of factors, such as country populations, economic indicators, environmental parameters, life expectancy, and rate of energy produced from clean energy, which affects clean energy investments for zero emissions. The data on these factors belong to the OECD members. Based on the results, countries will reach the minimum level in their zero-emission target by increasing the share of clean energy in the total energy produced and taking the factors considered in clean energy production.

In this study, we investigate the dynamic relationship between carbon emission and economic growth for Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, and Turkey, which are named Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs). A one-way Granger causality relationship was determined between GDP and carbon in NICs. It is concluded that economic growth causes of carbon emissions in NICs. On the other hand, Granger causality relationship from carbon emission to growth could not be determined. While considering these results, it is understood that countries focus on economic development without focusing on the environmental issues. Hence, it is strongly recommended that necessary regulations should be conducted to minimize carbon emission problems in the industrial development process. Within this framework, clean energy investments should be improved. In addition to this issue, technologic developments should be increased for the purpose of improving carbon capture system. These actions can be very helpful to minimize carbon emission problem.

It is a well-known fact that infrastructural projects have long-run impacts on the income and employment of the countries. Besides, it is also the fact that these projects badly impact the environment in terms of pollution through emissions of different greenhouse gases and particulate matters. Further, if the projects get delayed due to some reasons there arises the additional emissions burden upon the environment. Under the backdrop, the present study aims to examine whether cost overruns in different infrastructural projects have any sort of co-movements with the emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O), which is the prime pollutant in infrastructural projects, in case of India for the period 1995–2018. Employing Engle-Granger cointegration test technique, the study finds a significant persistent relationship between the cost overrun of delayed central sector projects and nitrous oxide in India. The study also finds negative but insignificant coefficient of the error correction term in the ECM. Finally, the Granger causality test demonstrates that cost overrun has had no effect on or influences environmental degradation in India due to N₂O emissions in the short term. The government of the country should apply good governance tools to control the problems of cost overruns.