1 Introduction
2 Literature review
2.1 Asymmetric information theories
2.2 Factors affecting information asymmetry
2.2.1 Corporate governance factors
3 The italian market
4 Hypotheses
Hypotesis | Variable | Expected sign of the relation | Rational |
---|---|---|---|
H1 | Board size | NEGATIVE | Boards composed by a larger number of members are expected to send a signal of better-quality corporate governance to investors that translates into lower underpricing and first-week returns |
H2 | Board independence | NEGATIVE | Boards composed by a higher number of independent directors are expected to apply stronger internal control that translates into lower short term returns on the stock markets |
H3 | Female directors | POSITIVE | The presence of female members in the BoD is seen as a negative aspect from external investors. These investors tend to attribute a lower value to companies managed by women and underprice the IPO offer accordingly |
H4 | Board ownership | NEGATIVE | The ownership stake held by board members works as a guarantee that the company will perform up to full capacity, thus leading to a lower underpricing and first-week returns |
H5 | Stock options | NEGATIVE | Offering stock options to BoD members increases a company’s reliability in the eyes of investor, leading them to appraise the company at a higher price |
H6 | Institutional investors | NEGATIVE | Due to institutional investors’ reputation as professionals following strict procedural rules and responding to tight disclosure requirements, their presence signals better-quality corporate governance that translates into lower underpricing |
H7 | Ownership concentration | POSITIVE | In companies characterized by a concentrated ownership there is an incentive for the majority shareholder to underprice the public offer in order to obtain a more widespread demand and sell the shares to a larger number of investors |
5 Methodology
5.1 Sample selection and sources
5.2 Regression model
5.2.1 Dependent variable
5.2.2 Corporate governance variables
5.2.3 Control variables
5.2.4 Regression equation
Regression | Issue | Test | Results | Solution |
---|---|---|---|---|
Model (1) | Heteroscedasticity | White test | Model affected by Heteroscedasticity | Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors, variant HC1 employment |
Autocorrelation | Breusch-Godfrey LM | Model affected by Autocorrelation | ||
Correlogram Q-statistics | ||||
Multicollinearity | Pearson correlation matrix | Model not affected by Multicollinearity | ||
Variance inflation factors | ||||
Model (2) | Heteroscedasticity | White test | Model affected by Heteroscedasticity | Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors, variant HC1 employment |
Autocorrelation | Breusch-Godfrey LM | Model affected by Autocorrelation | ||
Correlogram Q-statistics | ||||
Multicollinearity | Pearson correlation matrix | Model not affected by Multicollinearity | ||
Variance inflation factors |
5.3 Descriptive statistics
Year | # IPOs | Underpricing (%) | Offer size (€M) |
---|---|---|---|
2000 | 21 | 18.56 | 122.70 |
2001 | 8 | 1.45 | 386.05 |
2002 | 2 | −0.03 | 65.20 |
2003 | 2 | −1.88 | 28.78 |
2004 | 5 | 5.04 | 447.41 |
2005 | 4 | 9.78 | 267.11 |
2006 | 13 | 11.94 | 292.72 |
2007 | 18 | 2.16 | 167.14 |
2008 | 5 | 7.30 | 16.23 |
2009 | 3 | 9.38 | 84.76 |
2010 | 2 | 15.00 | 23.26 |
2011 | 2 | 4.28 | 214.46 |
2012 | 3 | 30.30 | 60.05 |
2013 | 6 | 14.94 | 177.08 |
2014 | 15 | 5.63 | 95.31 |
2015 | 13 | 2.24 | 53.26 |
2016 | 6 | 6.84 | 93.36 |
Total | 128 | 8.55 | 161.78 |
# Obs | Mean | Median | Std dev | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underpricing (%) | 128 | 8.55 | 3.37 | 18.73 | −20.00 | 147.00 |
Firm age (years) | 128 | 31.40 | 17.50 | 33.30 | 0 | 153.00 |
Firm size (€m) | 128 | 161.78 | 45.50 | 337.53 | 0.87 | 2202.48 |
Profitability (%) | 128 | 4.10 | 3.52 | 10.80 | −65.93 | 33.82 |
Venture backed | 128 | 0.20 | 0 | 0.40 | 0 | 1 |
Family owned | 128 | 0.63 | 1 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 |
Integer price | 128 | 0.30 | 0 | 0.46 | 0 | 1 |
Secondary shares (%) | 128 | 30.81 | 15.01 | 37.06 | 0 | 100 |
Industry risk | 128 | 0.20 | 0 | 0.40 | 0 | 1 |
Financial crisis | 128 | 0.43 | 0 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 |
Market segment | 128 | 0.27 | 0 | 0.44 | 0 | 1 |
# Obs | Mean | Median | Std dev | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underpricing (%) | 128 | 8.55 | 3.37 | 18.73 | −20.00 | 147.00 |
Board size | 128 | 7.31 | 7.00 | 2.82 | 3.00 | 21.00 |
Board independ. (%) | 128 | 23.82 | 24.04 | 15.37 | 0 | 80.00 |
Female directors (%) | 128 | 9.16 | 0.00 | 12.70 | 0 | 60.00 |
Own. concent. (%) | 128 | 67.96 | 67.13 | 26.45 | 18.84 | 100 |
Board ownership (%) | 128 | 56.69 | 60.72 | 37.35 | 0 | 100 |
Institut. investors (%) | 128 | 11.27 | 0.00 | 24.31 | 0 | 100 |
Stock options | 128 | 0.42 | 0 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 |
Underpricing (n = 84) | Overpricing (n = 37) | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
Board size | 7.1548 (2.3872) | 7.973 (3.617) | 0.2134 |
Board independence | 0.238 (0.158) | 0.2223 (0.1242) | 0.5935 |
Female directors | 0.0862 (0.1334) | 0.1028 (0.1125) | 0.5125 |
Board ownership | 0.5907 (0.3616) | 0.5774 (0.395) | 0.8564 |
Institutional investors | 0.1181 (0.2478) | 0.0862 (0.2162) | 0.4991 |
Ownership concentration | 0.6893 (0.2639) | 0.6535 (0.2576) | 0.4892 |
Firm size | 160.4453 (341.25) | 159.2434 (354.7928) | 0.9860 |
Firm age | 30.7857 (31.8672) | 34.0270 (38.0792) | 0.6285 |
Secondary shares | 0.3538 (0.3980) | 0.2168 (0.2925) | 0.0372* |
6 Empirical results and robustness check
Dependent variable: Underpricing | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method: Least squares | |||||
Included observations: 128 | |||||
Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors, variant HC1 | |||||
Coefficient | Std. error | t-ratio | p-value | ||
Const | 39.8124 | 11.1128 | 3.58 | 0.000 | *** |
LnBoardSizeFYO | −16.3171 | 4.4810 | −3.64 | 0.000 | *** |
BoardIndependence | 12.3488 | 10.7931 | 1.14 | 0.255 | |
FemaleonBoardFY0 | 3.5524 | 12.6929 | 0.28 | 0.780 | |
BoardOwnership | 4.1694 | 4.8298 | 0.86 | 0.390 | |
StockOptionsD | 2.4518 | 3.3948 | 0.72 | 0.472 | |
InstitutionalInvestorOwnership | 16.5238 | 7.3231 | 2.26 | 0.026 | ** |
Ownershipconcentration | −11.6996 | 6.1144 | −1.91 | 0.058 | * |
R-squared | 0.1450 | Adjusted R-squared | 0.0952 | ||
F (7, 120) | 2.91 | P-value(F) | 0.0076 |
Dependent variable: Underpricing | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method: Least squares | |||||||||
Included observations: 128 | |||||||||
Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors, variant HC1 | |||||||||
Coefficient | Std. Error | t-ratio | p-value | ||||||
Const | 38.3565 | 12.0555 | 3.18 | 0.002 | *** | ||||
LnBoardSizeFY0 | −14.3456 | 4.4859 | −3.20 | 0.002 | ** | ||||
BoardIndependence | 1.8205 | 9.6815 | 0.19 | 0.851 | |||||
FemaleonBoardFY0 | 1.5301 | 11.7100 | 0.13 | 0.896 | |||||
BoardOwnership | 1.7847 | 5.1446 | 0.35 | 0.729 | |||||
StockOptionsD | 0.6103 | 3.1557 | 0.19 | 0.847 | |||||
InstitutionalInvestorOwnership | 20.3097 | 7.9920 | 2.54 | 0.012 | ** | ||||
Ownershipconcentration | −4.1359 | 5.9704 | −0.69 | 0.490 | |||||
LnFirmAge | −0.3210 | 1.4049 | −0.23 | 0.820 | |||||
LnFirmSize | −1.5491 | 1.2757 | −1.21 | 0.227 | |||||
IntegerOfferPriceD | 11.2380 | 3.2961 | 3.41 | 0.001 | *** | ||||
VentureBackedD | −9.6233 | 4.3464 | −2.21 | 0.029 | ** | ||||
FamilyOwnedD | 4.3354 | 3.8708 | 1.12 | 0.265 | |||||
Profitability | −45.6490 | 14.2288 | −3.21 | 0.002 | *** | ||||
SecondaryShares | 8.7243 | 4.6939 | 1.86 | 0.066 | * | ||||
IndustryriskD | 4.0305 | 4.0145 | 1.00 | 0.318 | |||||
FinancialCrisisD | 0.1921 | 4.1689 | 0.05 | 0.963 | |||||
MarketSegmentD | −8.4403 | 5.2606 | −1.60 | 0.111 | |||||
R-squared | 0.4029 | Adjusted R-squared | 0.3106 | ||||||
F (16, 111) | 4.37000 | P-value(F) | 0.0000 |