Introduction
Background and literature review
Learning environment and the smart classroom
The features of smart classroom
The inventories for measuring technology integration classroom
Research design and methodology
Scale name
|
Scale description
|
Sample items
|
---|---|---|
Physical design | The extent to which the spatial area, furniture equipment, and information technology infrastructure of smart classrooms. | I have adequate workspace for putting textbooks, tablet PCs and other resources. |
Flexibility | The extent to which the comfortable support for users by classroom environment. | The classroom can be a theater, a group working place or other scenes for different learning purposes. |
Technology usage | The extent to which students use information technology as a tool to learn and to access information. | I deal with my assignments using computer or other digital devices. |
Learning data | The extent to which the information technology was used to acquire and compute the learning data of the users. | I can find out my learning history, like my homework, and discussions in the last semester using computers or other digital devices. |
Differentiation | The extent to which teachers cater for students differently on the basis of ability, rates of learning and interests. | I can learn at my own pace. |
Investigation | The extent to which skills and processes of inquiry and their use in problem solving and investigation are emphasized. | I carry out investigations to test my ideas. |
Cooperation | The extent to which students cooperate with one another on learning tasks. | I can cooperate with somebody outside the classroom through Internet when doing assignment work. |
Students cohesiveness | The extent to which students know, help and are supportive of one another. | I am friendly to members of the class. |
Equity | The extent to which students are treated equally by the teacher. | I am treated in the same way as other students in this class. |
Learning experience | The extent to which students’ satisfaction and some special learning experience in smart classroom. | The devices and software help me to get hands-on experience with the learning objects or learning context. |
Method
Sample
Gender
|
School
|
Age
|
City
| ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | Male | Primary | Secondary | 11 | 12 | 13 | > = 14 | Shenzhen | Beijing |
211 | 225 | 302 | 134 | 77 | 177 | 141 | 41 | 252 | 184 |
Translation
Test
Result
Verification of the instruments
Factors and Items
|
A
a
|
P
b
|
---|---|---|
Factor1: Physical design (PD), Actual α = 0.61, Preferred α = 0.84 | ||
I have adequate workspace for putting textbooks, tablet PCs and other resources. | 0.54 | 0.76 |
I can easily read the content on the screen in any lighting conditions. | 0.73 | 0.74 |
In the classroom I can see the teacher’s instruction and the classmate’s presentation all together. | 0.75 | 0.72 |
The classroom is quiet; I can hear what the teacher and other students say clearly. | 0.45 | 0.74 |
Factor2: Flexibility (FL), Actual α = 0.62, Preferred α = 0.57 | ||
The classroom is climate controlled with localized temperature and humidity controls. | 0.70 | 0.44 |
The classroom can be a theater, a group working place or other scenes for different learning purposes. | 0.59 | 0.62 |
I can only access into school using my authentication. | 0.69 | 0.53 |
Factor3: Technology usage (TU), Actual α = 0.85, Preferred α = 0.84 | ||
I deal with my assignments using computer or other digital devices. | 0.82 | 0.81 |
I submit my assignments to teachers using computer or other digital devices. | 0.76 | 0.76 |
I obtain the information related to learning with computers or other digital devices. | 0.80 | 0.56 |
I use the computer to read lesson notes prepared by the teacher. | 0.79 | 0.52 |
Factor4: Learning data (LD), Actual α = 0.75, Preferred α = 0.62 | ||
My parents can acquire my learning status in school from some apps or digital communication platforms easily. | 0.71 | 0.69 |
I can find out my learning history such as my homework, and discussions using computers or other digital devices. | 0.68 | 0.60 |
I have my own learning e-portfolio. | 0.61 | 0.58 |
Factor5: Differentiation (DI), Actual α = 0.80, Preferred α = 0.85 | ||
I have the possibilities to learn at my own pace in my class. | 0.67 | 0.63 |
I have the possibilities to choose the learning tasks to be completed in my class. | 0.70 | 0.79 |
I have the possibilities to choose the different materials for learning in my class. | 0.69 | 0.80 |
I have the possibilities to choose the different assessment for learning in my class. | 0.62 | 0.67 |
Factor6: Investigation (IN), Actual α = 0.85, Preferred α = 0.90 | ||
I have the possibilities to carry out investigations to test my ideas in my class. | 0.66 | 0.74 |
I am asked to provide evidence that supports my views in my class. | 0.66 | 0.75 |
I have the possibilities to carry out investigations to answer questions coming from teachers or discussions in my class. | 0.77 | 0.79 |
I have the possibilities to find out answers to questions by doing investigations in my class. | 0.75 | 0.78 |
I have the possibilities to design my own ways of investigating problems in my class. | 0.65 | 0.76 |
Factor7: Cooperation (CO), Actual α = 0.77, Preferred α = 0.82 | ||
I have the possibilities to cooperate with other students when doing assignment work in my class. | 0.68 | 0.65 |
I have the possibilities to cooperate with somebody outside the classroom through Internet when doing assignment work in my class. | 0.66 | 0.66 |
I have the possibilities to discuss with virtual partners when doing assignments in the classroom. | 0.47 | 0.56 |
I have the possibilities to share my data and resources with other students when doing assignments in my class. | 0.59 | 0.61 |
Factor8: Students cohesiveness (SC), Actual α = 0.77, Preferred α = 0.84 | ||
I make friends among students in the class. | 0.76 | 0.71 |
I am friendly to members of the class. | 0.83 | 0.79 |
I help other class members. | 0.74 | 0.75 |
Factor9: Equity (EQ), Actual α = 0.82, Preferred α = 0.80 | ||
The teacher takes a personal interest in me. | 0.84 | 0.84 |
The teacher considers my feelings. | 0.79 | 0.81 |
I am treated in the same way as other students in this class. | 0.70 | 0.51 |
Factor10: Learning experience (LE), Actual α = 0.74, Preferred α = 0.79 | ||
I am motivated by the multi-media learning contents. | 0.76 | 0.81 |
The devices and software are easy to use. | 0.70 | 0.70 |
The devices and software help me to get hands-on experience with the learning objects or learning context. | 0.69 | 0.61 |
Factors
|
PD
|
FL
|
TU
|
LD
|
DI
|
IN
|
CO
|
SC
|
EQ
|
LE
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical design | 1 | |||||||||
Flexibility | .38**
| 1 | ||||||||
Technology usage | .32**
| .41**
| 1 | |||||||
Learning data | .28**
| .44**
| .40**
| 1 | ||||||
Differentiation | .29**
| .45**
| .42**
| .58**
| 1 | |||||
Investigation | .25**
| .34**
| .24**
| .49**
| .55**
| 1 | ||||
Cooperation | .27*
| .38**
| .30**
| .48**
| .50**
| .65**
| 1 | |||
Students cohesiveness | .27**
| .20**
| .14**
| .14**
| .18**
| .33**
| .37**
| 1 | ||
Equity | .27**
| .20**
| .19**
| .29**
| .30**
| .38**
| .38**
| .46**
| 1 | |
Learning experience | .30**
| .27**
| .26**
| .35**
| .36**
| .41**
| .39**
| .37**
| .48**
| 1 |
Goodness-of-fit measure
| ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
χ2
|
df
|
χ2/df
|
GFI
|
AGFI
|
CFI
|
NFI
|
TLI
|
RMR
|
RMSEA
| |
Actual | 672.45 | 615 | 1.09 | 0.90 | 0.88 | 0.99 | 0.86 | 0.98 | 0.08 | 0.02 |
Preferred | 841.90 | 586 | 1.44 | 0.88 | 0.85 | 0.97 | 0.90 | 0.96 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Students’ perception of smart classroom
Factors
|
Mean
|
SD
|
T-test
|
Cohen’s d
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Act.
|
Pref.
|
Act.
|
Pref.
| |||
Physical design | 3.51 | 4.42 | 0.85 | 1.14 | −13.62***
| −0.91 |
Flexibility | 2.84 | 4.40 | 1.23 | 1.12 | −18.43***
| −1.32 |
Technology usage | 2.97 | 4.45 | 1.23 | 1.18 | −17.00***
| −1.23 |
Learning data | 2.63 | 4.20 | 1.34 | 1.17 | −17.71***
| −1.25 |
Differentiation | 2.60 | 4.44 | 1.16 | 1.14 | −22.86***
| −1.60 |
Investigation | 3.16 | 4.29 | 1.14 | 1.21 | −13.39***
| −0.96 |
Cooperation | 3.37 | 4.50 | 1.09 | 1.09 | −14.39***
| −1.04 |
Students cohesiveness | 4.18 | 4.75 | 0.98 | 1.06 | −6.67***
| −0.56 |
Equity | 3.82 | 4.65 | 1.17 | 1.15 | −9.29***
| −0.72 |
Learning experience | 3.51 | 4.60 | 1.15 | 1.13 | −11.14***
| −0.96 |
The differences in perception of smart classroom between female and male students
Factors
|
Mean
|
SD
|
T-test
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female
|
Male
|
Female
|
Male
| ||
Physical design | 3.53 | 3.49 | 0.82 | 0.86 | 0.70 |
Flexibility | 2.84 | 2.84 | 1.21 | 1.23 | −0.20 |
Technology usage | 3.00 | 2.94 | 1.21 | 1.20 | 0.59 |
Learning data | 2.76 | 2.51 | 1.36 | 1.27 | 2.11** |
Differentiation | 2.58 | 2.61 | 1.11 | 1.16 | −0.15 |
Investigation | 3.19 | 3.13 | 1.04 | 1.08 | 0.56 |
Cooperation | 3.41 | 3.33 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 0.58 |
Students cohesiveness | 4.31 | 4.06 | 0.71 | 0.90 | 3.28*** |
Equity | 3.94 | 3.71 | 0.85 | 1.04 | 3.62*** |
Learning experience | 3.54 | 3.48 | 1.00 | 1.13 | 0.41 |
Factors
|
Mean
|
SD
|
T-test
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female
|
Male
|
Female
|
Male
| ||
Physical design | 4.49 | 4.35 | 0.67 | 0.83 | 1.62 |
Flexibility | 4.50 | 4.31 | 0.76 | 0.94 | 2.26** |
Technology usage | 4.47 | 4.43 | 0.90 | 1.00 | 0.48 |
Learning data | 4.29 | 4.12 | 0.83 | 1.10 | 1.95 |
Differentiation | 4.47 | 4.42 | 0.83 | 0.92 | 0.33 |
Investigation | 4.22 | 4.35 | 0.97 | 0.95 | −1.14 |
Cooperation | 4.53 | 4.48 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.59 |
Students cohesiveness | 4.83 | 4.68 | 0.47 | 0.64 | 2.95** |
Equity | 4.72 | 4.58 | 0.53 | 0.75 | 2.40** |
Learning experience | 4.69 | 4.51 | 1.31 | 0.81 | 2.08** |
The differences in perception of smart classroom between primary and secondary school students
Factors
|
Mean
|
SD
|
T-test
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary
|
Secondary
|
Primary
|
Secondary
| ||
Physical design | 3.50 | 3.53 | 0.80 | 0.93 | −0.44 |
Flexibility | 2.79 | 2.95 | 1.24 | 1.13 | −1.49 |
Technology usage | 2.83 | 3.28 | 1.19 | 1.15 | −4.37*** |
Learning data | 2.71 | 2.45 | 1.35 | 1.18 | 2.25** |
Differentiation | 2.59 | 2.62 | 1.15 | 1.07 | −0.31 |
Investigation | 3.12 | 3.25 | 1.03 | 1.15 | −1.48 |
Cooperation | 3.31 | 3.51 | 0.99 | 1.06 | −0.94 |
Students cohesiveness | 4.13 | 4.29 | 0.82 | 0.85 | −2.03** |
Equity | 3.71 | 4.07 | 0.99 | 0.88 | −3.35** |
Learning experience | 3.45 | 3.64 | 1.08 | 1.06 | −2.10** |
Factors
|
Mean
|
SD
|
T-test
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary
|
Secondary
|
Primary
|
Secondary
| ||
Physical design | 4.51 | 4.21 | 0.70 | 0.92 | 1.13 |
Flexibility | 4.42 | 4.35 | 0.81 | 1.01 | 0.79 |
Technology usage | 4.42 | 4.51 | 0.96 | 0.95 | −0.16 |
Learning data | 4.19 | 4.22 | 1.00 | 0.96 | −0.25 |
Differentiation | 4.45 | 4.42 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 0.13 |
Investigation | 4.24 | 4.40 | 0.95 | 0.98 | −1.11 |
Cooperation | 4.45 | 4.61 | 0.90 | 0.90 | −0.73 |
Students cohesiveness | 4.76 | 4.73 | 0.56 | 0.61 | 0.79 |
Equity | 4.68 | 4.58 | 0.61 | 0.82 | 1.74 |
Learning experience | 4.56 | 4.69 | 0.72 | 1.72 | −0.86 |
Discussion
The feature of SCI
The differences in perception of smart classroom of both gender and school settings
Conclusion
Trickett and moos schema
|
Existing inventories
|
SCI
|
---|---|---|
System maintenance and change | Computer usage1, Audiovisual environment2, Technological enrichment2, Workspace environment3, Computer environment3, Visual environment3, Spatial environment3, Air quality3
|
Physical design
|
Flexibility
| ||
Technology usage | ||
Learning experience
| ||
Personal development | Task orientation1, Investigation1, Cooperation1, Differentiation1, Inquiry learning2, Competition & efficacy2
| Differentiation |
Investigation | ||
Cooperation | ||
Learning data
| ||
Relationship | Learners cohesiveness1, Teacher support1, involvement1, Equity1, Learner cohesiveness2, Understanding & encouragement2, Equity & friendliness2, Order2
| Students cohesiveness |
Equity |