Drivers of Environmental Sensing
Cost
Smartphones
Civic Sensing
Sampling
Environmental Sensing and Network and Communications Technologies
Barriers to Adoption
Power Consumption
Robustness and Cost
First Digit | Second Digit | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Protection against Human/Tool Contact | Protection against solid objects | Protection against water | Protection against condition | ||
0 | No special protection | No protection | 0 | No protection | |
1 | Back of hand, fist | Protection against a solid object >50mm | 1 | Protected against vertically dripping water | Condensation, light rain |
2 | Finger or similar objects | Protection against a solid object >12mm | 2 | Protected against vertically dripping water when tilted 15 degrees | Light rain with wind |
3 | Tools and wires etc. with a thickness > 2.5mm | Protection against a solid object >2.5mm | 3 | Protected against water spraying at an angle up to 60 degrees | Heavy rainstorm |
4 | Tool and wires etc. with a thickness >1mm | Protection against a solid object >1mm | 4 | Protected against water splashing from any direction | Splashing |
5 | Complete protection (limited ingress permitted) | Dust protected | 5 | Protected against jets of water from any direction | Hose down, residential |
6 | Complete protection | Dust proof | 6 | Protected against powerful jets of water from any direction | Hose down, commercial |
7 | Protected against immersion between a depth of 150mm and 1000mm | Immersion in tank | |||
8 | Protected against submersion—depth specified by manufacturer. | Immersion > 1M |
Technology Limitations
Security Concerns
Usability and Scalability
Interoperability
Data Quality and Ownership
-
Whose data is it?
-
How should it be interpreted?
-
How do we ensure data quality?
-
Does crowdsourced data have appropriate statistical significance?
Environmental Parameters
Air Quality and Atmospheric Conditions
-
Good (1-3)
-
Fair (4-6)
-
Poor (7-9)
-
Very poor (10)
Air Quality Index (AQI) | Levels of Health Concern | Definition |
---|---|---|
0-50 | Good | Air quality is satisfactory. |
51-100 | Moderate | Air quality is acceptable. Some pollutants may be at a level to be of moderate concern for a very small number of individuals who are sensitive to air pollution. |
101-150 | Unhealthy for sensitive groups | Members of sensitive groups may experience health effects. The general public is unlikely to be affected. |
151-200 | Unhealthy | Most people are likely to experience health effects. |
201-300 | Very unhealthy | Health warnings to indicate emergency conditions. |
301-500 | Hazardous | Health alert—everyone is at risk for serious health effects. |
Sensing Air Quality
http://data.opensense.ethz.ch
. It can be used to model how the various sensor parameters vary over the course of the year. For example, Figure 11-5 shows the variation in ultrafine particulate concentrations between spring and winter (Hasenfratz et al., 2012, Keller et al., 2012).
www.myairbase.com
), an Israeli start-up, has developed a low-cost, easy-to-use air quality sensor unit for indoor and outdoor monitoring applications, as shown in Figure 11-6(a). The system is currently equipped to measure levels of O3, NO2, total VOC, total suspended particles (TSP), noise, relative humidity, and temperature. Other sensors can be added to monitor odor, light, and SO2. The units require external power and feature both Wi-Fi and GSM communications. Once the sensor is powered up, data is available on a 20-second duty cycle. Any deviation from the allowed (or input) exposure standard generates an alert. Data from deployed stations can be made available on Google Maps to provide a live global view of air quality with drill-down into the data from each station, as shown in Figure 11-6(b)
Sensing Indoor Air Quality
airqualityegg.com
). This sensor is designed to allow anyone to collect data on NO2 and CO concentrations together with temperature and humidity. The sensor is placed outside the home to measure ambient gas concentrations and it streams the data wirelessly to an egg-shaped base station. The base station connects to a home broadband router via an Ethernet connection and sends data to the Xively web application, which visualizes and stores the data.www.airboxlab.com
), which is actually a sensor array that measures VOCs, CO2, CO, particulate matter, temperature, and relative humidity. Data from the sensor can be streamed to any computing device, including smartphones, for data access, and to the cloud for storage and additional processing. AirBoxLab is developing analytics capabilities, including pattern-recognition and machine-learning algorithms, that will enable proactive messaging designed to modify behavior to improve home air quality. That behavior might include air renewal by opening windows and doors in living spaces and locating sources of pollution to eradicate them.Community-Based Outdoor Air Quality Monitoring
Monitoring Ambient Weather
PMV | PET (°C) | Thermal Perception | Grade of Physiological Stress |
---|---|---|---|
-3.5 | 4 | Very cold | Extreme cold stress |
-2.5 | 8 | Cold | Strong cold stress |
-1.5 | 13 | Cool | Moderate cold stress |
-0.5 | 18 | ||
0.5 | 23 | Slight Cool | Slight cold stress |
1.5 | 29 | Comfortable | No thermal stress |
2.5 | 35 | Slight Warm | Slight heat stress |
3.5 | 41 | Warm Hot Very Hot | Moderate heat stress Strong heat stress Extreme heat stress |
UVA/UVB Monitoring
-
UV-A (wavelengths between 315nm and 400nm)
-
UV-B (wavelengths between 280nm and 315 nm)
-
UV-C (wavelengths between 200 and 280nm)
Water Quality Monitoring
www.ysi.com
), Intellitect Water (
www.intellitect-water.co.uk
), Liqum Oy (
www.liqum.com
), and Optiqua (
www.optiqua.com
) provide real-time quality-sensing systems that can detect key physical and chemical characteristics of water. Real-time sensing capabilities will play a vital role in the evolution of smart water systems. In these systems sensing and management technologies will be used to optimize the availability, delivery, utilization, and quality of water, together with others systems such as water treatment management. Companies like IBM are working with public authorities such as Sonoma County Water Agency in California and the Beacon Institute on the Hudson River in New York to deliver the first generation of these systems (IBM, 2010, Beacon Institute, 2007).Physical Water Sensing
Characteristic | Description | Sensor |
---|---|---|
Temperature | Water temperature influences its density, the solubility of constituents, pH, specific conductance, the rate of chemical reactions, and biological activity. | Thermistor |
Conductivity | Measurement of the capacity of water to conduct an electrical current. Conductivity is a function of the concentrations and types of dissolved solids, such as metals, inorganics, and organics. Changes in conductivity can result from discharges into the water. Sewage, for example, raises conductivity due the presence of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate. In contrast, an oil spill may cause a drop in conductivity due to the presence of organic compounds. | Conductivity Electrode |
Color | Apparent color is the color of the water sample as a whole, which is affected by both dissolved and suspended compounds. True color is obtained after filtering the water to remove all suspended material. The health impact of color depends on the type of dissolved compounds. | Optical
Colorimeter
|
Turbidity | Turbidity is the cloudiness of a water sample, caused by suspended particles or impurities may include clay, silt, vegetable matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, and microorganisms. Excessive turbidity in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing and may also represent a health concern, resulting in issues such as gastroenteritis. | Optical
Nephelometer
Surface Scatter Method
|
Chemical Water Sensing
Characteristic | Description | Sensor |
---|---|---|
Dissolved Oxygen | Adequate dissolved oxygen (O2) is necessary for good water quality. The main factor contributing to changes in dissolved oxygen levels is the build-up of organic wastes. Low levels of dissolved oxygen maybe indicative of microorganisms in the water consuming oxygen as they decompose sewage, urban and agricultural runoff, and discharge from food-processing plants | Electrochemical
Amperometric
Galvanic
Polarography
Gas Optical
Luminescence
Biosensor |
pH | The pH of a water sample relates to the concentration of hydrogen ions. Drinking water has a pH range of 6.5 to 9.5. Extreme pH values can indicate chemical spills, treatment plant issues, or problems with the supply pipe network. | Electrometric
Potentiometric
ISFET Optical
Colorimetric
|
Chlorine | As ground water percolates underground through bedrock or sand and gravel, it dissolves various minerals and constituents, including chloride. Chloride (Cl-)levels in wells and reservoirs that are higher than normal may indicate pollution such as sewage, industrial contamination, fertilizers, and so on. | Electrochemical
Amperometric
Optical
Colorimetric
|
ORP | The oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of a water sample is a key measure of how well a water treatment or sanitization process is working. It is used to monitor drinking water, swimming pools, and spas. ORP targets are expressed in millivolts, which can be determined for each specific application and will result in completely reliable disinfection of pathogens. | Electrochemical
Potentiometric
|
Free Chlorine | Free chlorine is formed by the reaction of chlorine gas with water. This molecule and its ion are essential in ensuring that water is safe to drink. They act as oxidizing agents (disinfectants), killing bacteria. Excess chlorine in drinking water has been linked with bladder and rectal cancers. | Electrochemical
Polarography
Amperometric
Optical
Colorimetric
|
Heavy Metals | Common heavy metals, such as cadmium (Cd), copper (CU), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb), in water have been linked to a variety of health risks, including reduced growth and development, cancer, organ damage, nervous system damage, and, in extreme cases, death. Young children are particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of heavy metals. | Electrochemical
ISE
ISFET
Optical
Photoluminescence Fluorescence
|
Phosphate | Phosphates (PO3−
4) are naturally absorbed in water from bedrock and other mineral deposits. Human and animal waste, washing powder and detergents, and fertilizers in the water supply can cause an increased level of phosphates. This can lead to water-quality problems, including algal blooms, and impacts to human health, such as kidney damage and osteoporosis. | Optical
Colorimetric
Electrochemical
Potentiometric ISE
|
Nitrate | Nitrate (NO3−) is an inorganic compound that is highly soluble in water. Major sources of nitrates in drinking water include fertilizers, sewage and animal manure. When ingested, nitrate is converted to nitrite in the body. Nitrite can result in health issues, particularly for young children. In infants it can cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby syndrome. It has also been linked to cancers through the formation of nitrosamines, which are known cancer-causing agents. | Electrochemical
Potentiometric ISE
Optical
UV Absorption
Fluorescence
|
Biological Pathogen Water Sensing
Characteristic | Description | Sensor |
---|---|---|
Blue-Green Algae (cyanobacteria) | Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is a bacteria that has the potential to cause health problems in humans and animals. Cyanobacteria are common and naturally occurring, but water pollution, such as sewage effluent, fertilizer run-off, sediment, and food-processing effluent, can cause some types to form dense blooms. Toxins released by the bacteria can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea. | Optical
fluorescence
|
Chlorophyll | Chlorophyll is produced by phytoplankton. It does not negatively impact human health and has been reported to actually have beneficial effects. However, the presence of chlorophyll may indicate high nutrient levels, perhaps from fertilizer runoff, which could impact human health. | Optical
fluorescence
|
Cryptosporidium | Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that causes a severe diarrhea disease known as cryptosporidiosis. Both human and animal waste are potential sources of contamination. Outbreaks of the disease are normally associated with poor water treatment. Cryptosporidium oocysts are resistant to chlorine disinfection, so the water treatment process must be tightly controlled. Oocyst removal is achieved with effective clarification and filtration stages during the treatment process. |
Biosensor
(research) |
Coliforms E. Coli | Human consumption of water contaminated with E. coli results in nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and even death in severe cases. E. coli can result from sewage contamination in water. | Biosensor (research) |
Mobile Water-Quality Sensing
www.in-situ.com
) recently announced its iSitu smartphone app, which can connect via Bluetooth to its handheld probe that includes an optical dissolved-oxygen sensor, as well as sensors for barometric pressure, air temperature, and water temperature. The phone’s GPS can be used to geotag the sensor readings together with photos from the smartphone camera. Data can also be sent in real-time to any required location, giving the field operators flexibility in delivering information to their offices and receiving instructional updates In a related application, Insta-link provides a smartphone app that can be used to scan a test-strip for free chlorine, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and cyanuric acid to determine if water quality in a pool or spa is sufficient for human recreational purposes (Insta-Link, 2012).Environmental Noise Pollution
Radiation Sensing
Environmental Impact on Food
Future Directions for Environmental Monitoring
Summary
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