Background
“With the formal sector in many countries experiencing stagnant or slow growth, it is unlikely that this sector will be able to offer work opportunities to the increasing number of young people looking for employment. Unless alternative employment options are encouraged, the number of unemployed, underemployed youths and youth in vulnerable employment will continue to increase. Youth entrepreneurship needs to be enabled, as an additional way of allowing the youth into the labour market and promoting job creation…..The traditional job for life career path has become rarer and youth entrepreneurship will need to be seen as an additional way of allowing the youth into the labour market and promoting job creation.” (Kew et al., p.7,9, GEM India Report 2013)
A brief history of youth entrepreneurship in India
Conceptual considerations and relevant literature
Determinants of pro-entrepreneurial attitude
Empirical studies on youth entrepreneurship in South India
Methods
Sample
Variable measures
Dependent variable
Independent variables
Variable Name | Mean | Standard deviation | Minimum | Maximum |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable | ||||
Entrepreneur_attitude | 0.810811 | 0.3927217 | 0 | 1 |
Independent variables: | ||||
Family Capital | ||||
Parent_contacts | 0.59459 | 0.4923027 | 0 | 1 |
Household_income | 5.372973 | 2.74779 | 1 | 8 |
Youth social capital | ||||
Political_trust | 11.35135 | 2.887531 | 5 | 18 |
Paternal_trust | 19.83784 | 2.964587 | 12 | 26 |
Stranger_trust | 9.659459 | 1.921766 | 6 | 14 |
General_trust | 5.481081 | 2.338459 | 0 | 10 |
Indian_political trust | 9.259459 | 3.36021 | 4 | 16 |
Volunteer_education | 0.535135 | 0.5001175 | 0 | 1 |
Volunteer_professional | 0.27027 | 0.4453045 | 0 | 1 |
Social_contacts | 2.405405 | 1.017762 | 1 | 4 |
Friends_entrepreneurs | 0.25946 | 0.4395276 | 0 | 1 |
Personality traits/Values | ||||
Universalism | 0.367568 | 0.6517046 | −2.42857 | 2.047619 |
Hedonism | −0.88108 | 1.019656 | −3.76191 | 1.952381 |
Self-direction | 0.297297 | 0.767389 | −2.61905 | 1.952381 |
Stimulation | 0.189189 | 0.9002788 | −3.11905 | 2.214286 |
Achievement | 0.151351 | 0.7535868 | −1.90476 | 2.047619 |
Security | −0.06216 | 0.7921345 | −2.59524 | 1.857143 |
Power | −0.47297 | 0.9084654 | −3.30952 | 1.857143 |
Conformity | −0.21081 | 0.9017724 | −3.45238 | 1.476191 |
Tradition | −0.01351 | 0.8335725 | −2.7381 | 1.857143 |
Risk_taker | 6.102703 | 1.878148 | 0 | 10 |
Demographic | ||||
Work_experience | 0.313514 | 0.4651801 | 0 | 1 |
Religious_attendance | 4.454054 | 1.887976 | 1 | 7 |
Male | 0.572973 | 0.4959886 | 0 | 1 |
University | ||||
Crescent University | 0.194595 | 0.3969626 | 0 | 1 |
Loyola Institution of Business Application | 0.216216 | 0.4127805 | 0 | 1 |
Velammal Engineering College | 0.248649 | 0.4334026 | 0 | 1 |
SRM University | 0.340540 | 0.475177 | 0 | 1 |
Analytic strategy
Results
Regressor | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Family capital | |||||
Parent_contacts | 0.572** | 0.573** | 0.565** | 0.466* | 0.926*** |
(2.39) | (2.12) | (2.06) | (1.70) | (2.79) | |
Household_income | −0.0182 | 0.00563 | 0.0153 | 0.0164 | 0.108* |
(−0.46) | (0.13) | (0.32) | (0.34) | (1.86) | |
Youth social capital | |||||
Political_trust | −0.0811* | −0.0995** | −0.103** | −0.209*** | |
(−1.84) | (−2.20) | (−2.33) | (−3.23) | ||
Paternal_trust | 0.0652 | 0.0816* | 0.0818* | 0.144*** | |
(1.44) | (1.91) | (1.92) | (3.05) | ||
Stranger_trust | 0.141** | 0.208** | 0.218*** | 0.313*** | |
(2.22) | (3.18) | (3.33) | (3.49) | ||
General_trust | 0.0187 | 0.0471 | 0.0560 | 0.122* | |
(0.35) | (0.76) | (0.90) | (1.70) | ||
Indian_political trust | −0.00293 | −0.0335 | −0.0395 | −0.086* | |
(−0.09) | (−0.87) | (−1.03) | (−1.77) | ||
Volunteer_education | 0.478** | 0.432* | 0.440* | 0.941*** | |
(2.16) | (1.83) | (1.91) | (2.96) | ||
Volunteer_professional | 0.485 | 0.555* | 0.565* | 0.807* | |
(1.62) | (1.68) | (1.67) | (1.89) | ||
Social_contacts | 0.309** | 0.312** | 0.307** | 0.570*** | |
(2.90) | (2.66) | (2.60) | (3.81) | ||
Friends_entrepreneurs | −0.234 | −0.249 | −0.256 | −0.231 | |
(−0.89) | (−0.88) | (−0.92) | (−0.74) | ||
Personality traits/values | |||||
Universalism | 0.180 | 0.201 | 0.152 | ||
(0.57) | (0.65) | (0.39) | |||
Hedonism | 0.147 | 0.171 | 0.207 | ||
(0.74) | (0.87) | (0.85) | |||
Self-direction | 0.206 | 0.210 | 0.322 | ||
(0.94) | (0.96) | (1.13) | |||
Stimulation | 0.155 | 0.197 | 0.328 | ||
(0.74) | (0.92) | (1.14) | |||
Achievement | 0.186 | 0.209 | 0.570** | ||
(0.84) | (0.97) | (1.94) | |||
Security | 0.354 | 0.373* | 0.358 | ||
(1.63) | (1.70) | (1.45) | |||
Power | 0.354* | 0.392* | 0.638*** | ||
(1.75) | (1.87) | (2.71) | |||
Conformity | −0.104 | −0.105 | −0.307 | ||
(−0.49) | (−0.50) | (−1.10) | |||
Tradition | 0.205 | 0.219 | 0.249 | ||
(0.86) | (0.92) | (0.85) | |||
Risk_taker | 0.105 | 0.112* | 0.177** | ||
(1.63) | (1.66) | (2.05) | |||
Demographics | |||||
Work_experience | −0.157 | 0.909* | |||
(−0.63) | (1.62) | ||||
Religious_attendance | −0.0667 | −0.112 | |||
(−0.96) | (−1.47) | ||||
Male | −0.283 | −0.283 | |||
(−0.65) | (−0.65) | ||||
University fixed effects | No | No | No | No | Yes |
Constant | 1.353*** | −1.495 | −2.618* | −2.402* | −5.531*** |
(4.30) | (−1.13) | (−1.92) | (−1.76) | (−3.32) | |
Overall model fit (p-value for Wald test) | 0.058 | 0.0005 | 0.0022 | 0.0043 | 0.0003 |
Psuedo R-Squared | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.22 | 0.23 | 0.41 |
Marginal effect | Delta-method | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regressor | (dy/dx) | Std. Err. | z | P > |z| | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
Family capital | ||||||
Parent_contacts | 0.1392051 | 0.0499143 | 2.79 | 0.005 | 0.0413749 | 0.2370353 |
Household_income | 0.0161006 | 0.0086605 | 1.86 | 0.063 | −0.0008737 | 0.0330749 |
Youth social capital | ||||||
Political_trust | −0.032742 | 0.0092711 | −3.53 | 0 | −0.050913 | −0.014571 |
Paternal_trust | 0.0219923 | 0.0071733 | 3.07 | 0.002 | 0.0079329 | 0.0360516 |
Stranger_trust | 0.0486274 | 0.012488 | 3.89 | 0 | 0.0241514 | 0.0731033 |
General_trust | 0.0177535 | 0.0104912 | 1.69 | 0.091 | −0.0028089 | 0.0383159 |
Indian_political trust | −0.0126176 | 0.0071117 | −1.77 | 0.076 | −0.0265562 | 0.001321 |
Volunteer_education | 0.1426186 | 0.0479111 | 2.98 | 0.003 | 0.0487146 | 0.2365227 |
Volunteer_professional | 0.1222408 | 0.0629303 | 1.94 | 0.052 | −0.0011004 | 0.2455819 |
Social_contacts | 0.0895546 | 0.0228206 | 3.92 | 0 | 0.044827 | 0.1342822 |
Friends_entrepreneurs | −0.0344783 | 0.0472705 | −0.73 | 0.466 | −0.1271267 | 0.0581702 |
Personality traits/values | ||||||
Universalism | 0.0179207 | 0.0604408 | 0.3 | 0.767 | −0.1005411 | 0.1363824 |
Hedonism | 0.0274467 | 0.0374007 | 0.73 | 0.463 | −0.0458574 | 0.1007507 |
Self-direction | 0.0427031 | 0.0419864 | 1.02 | 0.309 | −0.0395887 | 0.124995 |
Stimulation | 0.0482096 | 0.0439413 | 1.1 | 0.273 | −0.0379138 | 0.1343331 |
Achievement | 0.0802865 | 0.0426872 | 1.88 | 0.06 | −0.0033789 | 0.1639519 |
Security | 0.0547923 | 0.0375486 | 1.46 | 0.145 | −0.0188017 | 0.1283863 |
Power | 0.0955426 | 0.0338118 | 2.83 | 0.005 | 0.0292728 | 0.1618125 |
Conformity | −0.050535 | 0.0440738 | −1.15 | 0.252 | −0.136918 | 0.0358481 |
Tradition | 0.0365672 | 0.045133 | 0.81 | 0.418 | −0.0518918 | 0.1250263 |
Risk_taker | 0.0260216 | 0.012388 | 2.1 | 0.036 | 0.0017416 | 0.0503016 |
Demographics | ||||||
Work_experience | 0.1473522 | 0.0878582 | 1.68 | 0.094 | −0.0248466 | 0.319551 |
Religious_attendance | −0.0173703 | 0.0117955 | −1.47 | 0.141 | −0.0404891 | 0.0057485 |
Male | −0.0087804 | 0.0458508 | −0.19 | 0.848 | −0.0986462 | 0.0810855 |
University fixed effects | ||||||
Crescent University | 0.4081755 | 0.0827803 | 4.93 | 0 | 0.2459291 | 0.5704219 |
Loyola Inst. Business | 0.0973052 | 0.0903166 | 1.08 | 0.281 | −0.079712 | 0.2743225 |
Velammal Eng. College | 0.3560661 | 0.0658716 | 5.41 | 0 | 0.2269601 | 0.4851721 |
Discussion and conclusion
Study implications and policy recommendations
Marginal | Variable | |
---|---|---|
Regressor | Effect | Grouping |
Work_experience | 0.1473 | Demographic |
Volunteer_education | 0.1426 | Youth social capital |
Parent_contacts | 0.1392 | Family capital |
Volunteer_professional | 0.1222 | Youth social capital |
Power | 0.0955 | Personality traits/values |
Social_contacts | 0.0896 | Youth social capital |
Stranger_trust | 0.0486 | Youth social capital |
Political_trust | −0.0327 | Youth social capital |
Risk_taker | 0.0260 | Personality traits/values |
Paternal_trust | 0.0220 | Youth social capital |