| • To determine whether motivation is positively related to learning outcomes. • To determine whether spatial ability moderates the influence of motivation on learning outcomes. | IX: virtual-reality features, interaction experience, usability, learning experience, psychological factors and learner characteristics. DX: learning outcomes. N = 232. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey. | • Presence, motivation, cognitive benefits, control and active learning, reflective thinking and usability positively influence learning outcomes (performance achievement, perceived learning effectiveness and satisfaction). | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control, reflection and interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To examine issues of syndicate learning in a web-based environment. | IX: facilitating discussion, onsite visit, study material, technology, online discussion, feedback and assignments. DX: overall evaluation of the course. N = 19. Method: qual. case study. | • The authentic web-based medium presented seemed to be an effective tool for academic discussion and problem solving. Nonetheless, learners need to be supported in using the web-based medium to enhance academic discourse. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control, scaffolding, reflection and interaction. LX: motivation. |
Aleven and Koedinger ( 2002) | • To investigate whether self-explanation can be scaffolded effectively in a classroom environment using a Cognitive Tutor. | IX: procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge. DX: score answer items. N = 41. Method: quant. experiment + pre and post-test. | • Scaffolding with a cognitive Tutor (guided) is more effective when learners explain their steps by providing references to problem-solving principles. • Tutor feedback helped learners improve their explanations. | Att.: scaffolding, reflection and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To determine whether performance will increase more in a group who receive reflection instructions combined with feedback. • To determine whether participants with a high need for cognition will engage more in reflection after feedback during reflection than their counterparts. | IX: age, education, tenure, feedback, instructions completed, learning goal orientation, need for cognition, involvement, word count and reflection. DX: task performance. Study 1: N = 640. Method: quant. experiment + pre and post-test. Study 2: N = 488. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Reflection (written) combined with (external) feedback improved task performance more than when learners received only a feedback report. Reflection only enhanced performance in combination with external feedback. • The reflection strategy proposed may be less effective for individuals low in need for cognition, low in learning goal orientation and low in personal importance as they will be less inclined to write down their thoughts. | Att.: calibration, reflection and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To examine personal factors relating to academic success in an online course. | IX: learning strategies, motivational beliefs and achievement emotions. DX: overall satisfaction and continuing motivation. N = 481. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey. | • Task value beliefs positively predict elaboration and metacognition and satisfaction and continuing motivation. • In autonomous contexts where learners do not interact with an instructor or other learners, adaptive motivational beliefs may be vital for initiating cognitive and metacognitive engagement. | Att.: learner control. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To explore the extent to which learners’ thoughts, feelings, and actions are associated with the nature of an online course and how that course relates to them personally. | IX: motivational beliefs, achievement emotions, self-regulated learning behaviours, prior knowledge of course material. DX: academic outcomes. N = 481. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey. | • Learners’ motivational beliefs and self-regulatory behaviours are related to the nature of the online course and how courses relates to them personally. | Att.: authenticity, learner control and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To explore the relations between several discrete achievement-related emotions (boredom, frustration, and enjoyment) and self- regulated learning behaviours (elaboration and metacognition) in an online course. | IX: cognitive appraisals and achievement emotions. DX: self-regulated learning behaviours. N = 302. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey. | • Negative achievement emotions are associated with lower levels of self-regulation, whereas enjoyment is associated with higher levels of elaboration and metacognition. • Learning will be improved when negative emotions are minimized and positive emotions are maximized. • The learning task and the technology should be considered in the design of learning environments. | Att.: scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
Artino and Stephens ( 2009) | • To explore potential developmental differences in self-regulated learning. In particular. • To examine whether there are motivational and self-regulatory differences between undergraduate and graduate learners enrolled in online courses. | IX: motivational beliefs, processing strategies and motivational engagement. DX: experience and courses completed. N = 194. Method: quant. survey. | • Learners come to online courses with different levels of online experience and exhibit different levels of motivation and self-regulation while learning online. • Instructors have to consider their online audience, adjusting the type and amount of structure, support, and scaffolding they provide during online instruction (provide explicit instructional support and structure, develop learners’ self-efficacy and scaffold online discussions). | Att.: scaffolding and personalization. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
Barzilai and Eshet-Alkalai ( 2015) | • To determine whether epistemic perspectives and viewpoint comprehension predict information source integration. • To explore how epistemic perspectives moderate the impact of conflicts on viewpoint comprehension. | IX: viewpoint comprehension, integration of sources, epistemic perspectives. DX: ability. N = 170. Method: experiment + survey + log file analysis. | • Learners’ epistemic perspectives can be one of the factors that predict comprehension of source viewpoints. • The strength in which an epistemic perspective is endorsed is considered as an indicator of learners’ tendency to adopt that perspective in a particular context. | Att.: authenticity and scaffolding. LX: cognition. |
| • To investigate whether unattainable goal, and subsequently a large goal-performance discrepancy, may negative impact subsequent videogames. • To provide a remedy for mitigating this negative impact on training effectiveness. | IX: goal-setting advice and self-regulation. DX: subsequent performance, initial performance goal and initial goal-performance discrepancy. N = 429. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Unattainable goal-setting early in videogame-based training has a negative impact on subsequent training performance, and that trainees’ self-regulation coupled with goal commitment may serve as mechanisms underlying this relationship. • Instructors should be wary of learners setting goals without advice. | Att.: learner control, calibration and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
Casillas and Gremeaux ( 2012) | • To explore how medical learners assessed a website dedicated to cardiovascular rehabilitation, and collecting their suggestions in order to meet their expectations and the goals of second cycle medical studies. | IX: medical information and design. DX: quality of the website and knowledge improvement. N = 18. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + interviews. | • Learners do not seem to see the websites as a properly adapted tool to prepare them. This type of learning material appears to be significantly useful for short-term knowledge improvement. • The immediate impact of this type of multimedia support tool on improving learners’ knowledge seems nevertheless relevant and interesting. | Attributes: interaction and scaffolding. LX: cognition. |
| • To develop a conceptual model to investigate the determinants of college learners’ proactive stickiness with a web-based English learning (WBEL) environment. | IX: proactive stickiness, learning gratifications, computer self-efficacy, learning outcome expectations, social environmental, interaction, learning climate, system characteristics and digital material features. DX: learning outcomes. N = 306. Method: quant. survey. | • Computer self-efficacy, system characteristics, digital material features, interaction, learning outcome expectations and learning climate are critical affecting factors in determining learner learning gratifications with web-based English learning. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To explore the effect of a redesigned course, integrating web-enabled self-regulated learning (SRL) with variations in online class frequency on enhancing learners’ skills of deploying database management system (DBMS). | IX: online class frequency and web-enabled self-regulated learning. DX: computing skills. N = 112. Method: quant. experiment + test + survey. | • Self-regulatory interventions helped learners become more responsible for their learning and contribute to further success. • Formal education should also develop learners’ informal learning ability for a lifelong learning process. It is suggested that instructors ideally support self-regulatory interventions. | Att.: interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
Cholowski and Chan ( 2004) | • To explore learners’ clinical problem solving based on a model consisting of their motivational orientation, prior knowledge, diagnostic reasoning and diagnostic solutions. | IX: motivational orientation, prior knowledge, diagnostic reasoning and diagnostic solutions. DX: clinical problem solving. N = 135. Method: quant. survey + test. | • Instructors need to address each contributing component of the problem-solving. Including attention for underlying motivational orientation in undertaking the task and on the way new information is linked with prior knowledge. | Attributes: scaffolding. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To identify the processes that key stakeholders perceive to be most important in facilitating a positive impact of continuing professional education on practice. | IX: organizational structure, partnership working, a supportive learning environment and changing practice. DX: continuing professional education. N = 31. Method: qual. interviews. | • A positive learning culture, effective partnership between learners with understanding of each other’s perspectives, aspirations and constraints and a supportive learning environment in both the practice setting and education environment are central to establishing a culture and context that positive influences learning. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To investigate the influence of difficulty and support of the learning tasks on the learners competence scores. • To investigate whether perceived task load would make learning more effective and efficient. • To assess whether shared control has positive effects on learner motivation. | IX: task difficulty, competence, task load, training time and germane load. DX: learning outcomes, learning efficiency and task involvement. N = 55. Method: quant. experiment + log-file analysis + survey. | • Learning outcomes of learners who received adaptive training were higher, and they experienced a lower task load during practice than learners who received non-adaptive training. • Learners in the shared-control conditions showed higher task involvement. Choice provided positively influenced the amount of effort invested in learning, combined with higher learning outcomes. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether web-based and faculty-led learners demonstrated improved knowledge and attitudes about caring for the underserved. | IX: faculty-led and web-based course. DX: knowledge, attitudes, and skills. N = 100. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test. | • Compared to learners in the established curriculum, both web-based and faculty-led learners demonstrated improved significant knowledge and attitudes. Results also indicate that Faculty-led and web-based curricula can equally improve learner knowledge, attitudes, and skills. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether certified education changes learners’ empowerment, job satisfaction, and clinical competency over time. | IX: empowerment, job satisfaction, intent to turnover, clinical competency, technological skills. DX: course satisfaction. N = 84. Method: quant. survey | • Certification significantly improved empowerment, satisfaction, and competence (can reduce persistently high learner turnover rates). • Changes in empowerment and competency did not affect changes in job satisfaction. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To analyse the effectiveness of three remedial instruction models, including e-learning, blended-learning and traditional instruction. | IX: active learning strategy, mathematics learning value, factors of self-awareness, learning method, learning plan and achievement goal. DX: learning motivation. N = 94. Method: quant. survey. | • Active learning strategy, mathematics learning value, factors of self-awareness, learning method learning plan and achievement goal influence learning motivation. | Attributes: interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To leverage the hierarchical view of traits, to develop a theory-grounded, integrative model of broad personality and IT-specific traits. | IX: computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy. DX: web utilization. N = 230. Method: quant. survey. | • Links between personal innovativeness and openness, social cues exuding adventurous, creative, and expressive behaviour will be more effective at retention than cues tailored toward reducing anxiety or conscientiousness. | Att.: Interaction. LX: motivation. |
Demetriadis et al. ( 2008) | • To investigate whether learners’ learning and problem-solving performance in ill-structured domains can be improved, whether elaborative question prompts are used to activate learners’ context-generating cognitive processes, during case study. | IX: scaffolding. DX: portfolio score. N = 32. Method: quant. experiment + pre-test + survey. | • Scaffolding treatment had a significant main effect on learners’ performance (epistemological beliefs profile and scaffolding treatment interact, learners with complex epistemological beliefs learners benefiting most). • It is possible to improve individual learning in a technology environment, by implementing questioning strategies. | Att.: Authenticity and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To investigate, in a tutorial setting, the factors that govern the success of interaction in blended problem- based learning. | IX: use of face-to-face PBL tutorials, online journal entries, use of video conferencing, use of asynchronous discussions and use of synchronous chat and international guest collaboration. DX: interactions as transactions and interaction in blended problem-based learning. N = 17. Method: qual. observation + quant. log file analysis + interview + self-reflective papers. | • Conditions for the effectiveness of blended learning: the selection of authentic tasks within the problem which demand a division of labour between the face-to-face and the online environments, the maintenance of common goals and motivation, the mutual expectations of learners and tutors, the awareness of the individual role and group leadership, and changes in these and the availability of appropriate communication tools. | Att.: authenticity and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To identify facilitating factors and constraints of skills practice in online learning environments. | IX: social self-efficacy, prior knowledge, interview experiences, enjoyment, usefulness, perception about learning, cognitive retention of learning content, verbal interview skills and behaviour based interview skills. DX: number of skills practice sessions. N = 23. Method: qual. case study + interviews. | • Instructors should facilitate learners’ skills practice, by: designing an appealing enough course to make learners involved. If learners already have substantial prior knowledge or cognitive knowledge of the interpersonal skills set presented emphasize that cognitive understanding not guarantees successful execution, ensure appropriate learning environments for practicing and use mental practice if learners feel the discrepancies between online learning and offline practice. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To describe the content, format, and outcomes of one of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) courses and share key lessons learned about formats and assessment methods. | IX: content and format. DX: knowledge of research ethics, ethical problem-solving skills, and levels of confidence in addressing ethical issues in mental health research. N = 40. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Learners in the distance course were less satisfied and dropped out more easily. This was attributable to technical difficulties, the lack of face-to-face contact and the fact that the course did not offer the flexibility that many distance-learning courses offer. Although they had the opportunity to interact during case discussions, few participants did this. It is concluded that without interactivity, case discussion cannot achieve its aims. | Att.: reflection and interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To provide a theoretical underpinning for understanding the relevance of learner embodiments and co-presence within three-dimensional collaborative computer interfaces. | IX: (no-)co-presence, composition and interaction model used. DX: experience of immersion, involvement and awareness. N = 20. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Co-presence simulated by real-life agents can complement avatar technology and potentially achieve permanent presence of all learners by using a hybrid agent model. | Att.: authenticity and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To investigate the relationship between available tools used, learner motivation, participation, and performance on a final exam in an online course. | IX: motivation. DX: final exam scores. N = 110. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Higher levels of autonomous motivation did not have any significant higher participation rate or use of richer communication tools in web- or video-conferences. • Significant effect was found for higher participation rates in the web-and video-conferences with the use of richer tools. Learners who took part in more interactive web-and video-conferences had higher scores on the final exam. | Att.: authenticity, personalization and scaffolding. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To describes the implementation and evaluation results of a classroom application of a team-based learning process, which was modified to include computer mediation. | IX: motivation, perceptions of team members and perceiving of team interactions. DX: team interactions, perceived learning, enjoyment, learning outcomes. N = 73. Method: quant. survey. | • Motivation influences the relationship between team interactions and perceived learning. • Enjoyment is affected by motivation and perceptions of team members’ contributions, with the implication that learners who perceive that the team interactions are adding value to their education will better enjoy learning and will experience higher-level learning outcomes. | Att.: scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether guided use of multimedia learning materials will result in significantly lower levels of cognitive load and higher levels of self- efficacy. | IX: conventional classroom, individual DVD use, guided individual DVD use, guided classroom DVD use, cognitive load and self-efficacy. DX: knowledge and skills acquisition. N = 178. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Significant superior impact of studying with the DVD on skills acquisition and higher levels of self-efficacy. In addition, experimental conditions that build on guided usage of the multimedia application, result in superior performance. | Att.: authenticity and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To explore the effects of an authentic electronic learning environment on learner performance and experiences. | IX: perceived authenticity, experienced motivation, perceived as innovativeness, extend of confusion, experienced support and extend of explorative behaviour. DX: performance on the final report. N = 34. Method: quant. experiment + test + survey. | • No evidence was found for the expected superiority of the authentic learning environment. The most likely explanation for this finding is that the learning task was identical for both conditions. This is a strong argument for the idea that an authentic task and an authentic context are two different things. | Att.: authenticity and interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To examine the effectiveness of ‘safety education to prevent falls’ by different learning modes used to assess safety behaviour and learning effectiveness during the education training period. | IX: platform function and contents design. DX: learning effectiveness. N = 83. Method: qual. interview + test + survey + observation + document analysis. | • An e-learning environment is effective if it motivates the learner, provides the content needed for learning, and creates a learning context. • The smoothness of network, easy operation of platform, affinity of user interface and the test assessment of learning ability are the impressions of learner. Learning satisfaction is essential for learning effectiveness. • Content must include multimedia animation, actual case introduction, self-achievement simulation, and suitability of teaching materials unit, which will influence the learning satisfaction of learning effectiveness and raise performance. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To examine the actual participation and dynamics that occur in online discussions and their relationship to learner learning outcomes. | IX: quantity, quality, relevance, and manner. DX: learner participation. N = 15. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + log file analysis. | • Strong correlation was found between learners’ Gricean ratings and their final course grades, and between learners’ Manner ratings and their conference grades. • An important relationship between the Gricean elements and learner performance was found. | Att.: reflection. LX: motivation. |
| • To explore the influence of the four traditionally hypothesized sources of self- efficacy on learners’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding learning mathematics in an asynchronous environment. | IX: mastery experiences, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological / affective states. DX: self-efficacy beliefs. N = 99. Method: quant. survey. | • Courses offered using an emporium model should be designed to include elements which provide positive vicarious experiences and support positive affective and physiological beliefs toward the courses. | Attributes: calibration. LX: metacognition. |
| • To examine the cognitive and motivational antecedents and outcomes of learner-controlled practice difficulty in relation to learning a complex task. | IX: self-efficacy, metacognition, self-evaluation, general mental ability, videogame experience, task knowledge, pre-training skill, practice performance, post-training performance, learner-controlled practice difficulty and adaptive transfer performance. DX: task knowledge, performance, and adaptability. N = 118. Method: quant. experiment + survey + log-file analysis. | • Strong direct effects of learner-controlled practice difficulty on both task knowledge and post-training performance. Moreover, practice difficulty was positively related to adaptive performance via its relationships with both task knowledge and post-training performance. • Motivational mechanisms of pre-training self-efficacy and positive error framing also exhibited significant positive relationships with learner-controlled practice difficulty. | Att.: learner control and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To examine how East Asian international learners who were enrolled in the ‘curriculum and instruction’ course reflect upon their learning experiences. | IX: learning attitudes, curricular and pedagogic decisions, individual circumstances, epistemological transition and accumulated schemata, situation after arrival, factors affecting learning attitudes and participation, and epistemological transition. DX: learning experience. N = 12. Method: qual. interviews. | • Learners with low prior knowledge require an inclusive curriculum and learning context provided by the instructors to sustain the learning experience. • Metacognitive reasoning based on learners’ initial circumstance and academic advising arrangement with an advisor played a critical role, starting with the earliest stage of first arrival. | Att.: Personalization and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To investigate the role of the multimedia disclosure method for informed consent and its contribution to higher learning motivation and learning interest, to better remembering, comprehension and satisfaction than the conventional method. | IX: disclosure method and psychosocial learning processes. DX: learning outcomes. N = 112. Method: quant. survey. | • Different disclosure methods lead to significantly different learning motivation and learning interest and outcomes. • During the psychological learning processes, learning motivation and learning interest were positively correlated with learning outcomes (remembering, comprehension, and satisfaction), and correlations with comprehension and satisfaction were significant. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
Ibabe and Jauregizar ( 2010) | • To assess the degree to which learners take advantage of a self-assessment tool. • To explore the relationship between different metacognitive variables and academic performance and/or making use of activities oriented to learning of the relevant material. | IX: availability of a self-assessment tool, interactive self-assessment exercises and different metacognitive variables. DX: taking advantage, better grades, academic performance. N = 116. Method: quant. experiment + test + survey. | • Better academic performance for learners that use interactive self-assessment were measured. • It seems that even learners with low motivation levels made use of these tools. Finally, the need to include self-assessment in the curriculum, with a view to improving learners’ metacognitive knowledge. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To evaluate differences in learners’ discourse and actions when they used a wiki with discussion vs. a forum with attached MSWord documents for asynchronous collaboration. | IX: collaboration, complexity, monitoring & planning, other content, expansion, deletion, content-editing, formatting & spelling. DX: wiki and forum use. N = 34. Method: qual. case study. | • Significant differences can be found in the use of a wiki with discussion vs. a forum. This illustrates the expanding nature of a forum and the condensing nature of a wiki. • In a wiki, groups tend to be collaborative, whereas in a threaded discussion, groups tend to be more cooperative. | Att.: scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To undertake a module evaluation which formed part of the universities’ teaching and learning strategy. | IX: limited IT skills, feeling isolated, lack of perception regarding e-learning, motivation and development of independent learning skills, reduction in travel costs and positive academic support for learning. DX: learning outcomes. N = 13. Method: quant. survey. | • Six factors that restricted the achievement of learning outcomes: use of IT skills, feeling isolated, lack of perception regarding e-learning, motivation and development of independent learning skills, reduction in travel costs and positive academic support for learning). | Att.: scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To assess a web-based formative peer assessment system emphasizing learners’ metacognitive awareness for their performance in ill-structured tasks. | IX: attitudes toward peer assessment, motivation, identification of the context, clarity of the id process, completeness of the id, justification, critical thinking and creativity. DX: metacognitive awareness and performance. N = 122. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Sequential metacognitive learning processes help learners monitor their learning and adapt strategies that are not working effectively. • Peer interaction and back-feedback gave learners more control over their learning. | Att.: learner control, scaffolding and reflection. LX: metacognition. |
| • To develop a web-based Cognitive Behaviour Therapy training course, to increase accessibility to the training. | IX: guidance and feedback. DX: effectiveness and user satisfaction. N = 36. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Feasibility in the form of learner satisfaction is an important factor when developing training. • Learners had high levels of satisfaction with both the clinical content and the technical features of the training. Being able to obtain training online greatly increases accessibility and dissemination. The fact that the training was done by an experienced, but newly trained, psychologist gives promise for increased dissemination of the applied training as well. | Att.: reflection and interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To employ cluster analysis to categorize teachers into groups based on their self-reported technological pedagogical and content knowledge before they were engaged in lesson design activities as part of their professional development. | IX: pre-technological knowledge, pre-pedagogical knowledge, pre-content knowledge, pre-pedagogical content knowledge, pre-technological content knowledge, pre-technological pedagogical knowledge and pre-technological pedagogical content knowledge. DX: effectiveness and user satisfaction. N = 266. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • For in-service teachers who were already familiar with curriculum, the transformation of content with technology-based approaches needs to be emphasized in design activities. • Both pre-service and in-service teachers, regardless of their cluster membership, it seemed clear that the design process was inherently complex and could be better scaffolded with distributed intelligence. | Att.: authenticity, scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether the encouragement of learners to use learning strategies can be a design-purpose of study materials. • To determine whether a component that explicitly teaches learning strategies is a key element of the study process. | IX: metacognitive strategies, all strategies, except for metacognitive, inferencing, using of context for comprehension transfer, practicing different contexts, all cognitive strategies, communicative and social strategies. DX: strategy awareness. N = 222. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey + qual. interview. | • Direct teaching components for learning strategies in a distance learning course improve the learners’ strategy awareness. They may contribute to the empowerment of learners as autonomous learners, by reducing their anxiety, by fostering reflection, metacognition and by providing a sense of achievement. • Comprehension of learning strategies in distance learning form can be fostered by the implementation of a direct learning strategy. While providing opportunities for practicing these strategies in authentic learning situations and encouraging awareness of the metacognitive strategies during the study process can be directed towards the sustainable use of the acquired strategies. | Att.: authenticity, personalization and calibration. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To provide plausible information about the effect of educational game design on improving general knowledge and results. | IX: exam grades, learned by designing computer games, traditional learning circumstances. DX: learning outcomes and self-reported experience. N = 125. Method: quant. experiment + survey + qual. interview. | • Learners were interested in alternative ways of learning because it enabled them to learn in a different way, to show their creative skills and not the last, the concept of fun proved to be exceptionally important. • Content of learning (programming game) as well as context (game design) could be defined in terms of relevance and curiosity evoking. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, calibration and interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To propose a hybrid learning mechanism for improving learners’ web-based problem-solving abilities via the combination of the cognitive apprenticeship model and the collaborative learning strategy. | IX: interest in learning social studies, immersion in learning social studies, capability of learning social studies, usefulness of learning social studies and attitude toward problem-solving. DX: problem-solving ability and learning attitude. N = 58. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • The method integrating cognitive apprenticeship and collaborative learning mechanisms in an online inquiry-based learning environment has great potential to promote middle- and low-achievement learners’ problem-solving ability and learning attitudes. • Hybrid approaches could ease their learning anxiety via the inspection of high- achievement peers, while think aloud is essential for these learners when conducting the cognitive apprenticeship process. | Att.: authenticity, scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
Lafuente Martínez et al. ( 2015) | • To explore the role of e-assessment in making the learning process more visible to the instructor, while revealing its impact on the adjustment of ensuing feedback. | IX: e-assessment. DX: learning process visibility. N = 73. Method: qual. document analysis + interview. | • Promote peer-to-peer communication which can be recorded by a wide range of technological tools throughout the activity. Use asynchronous text-based communication as it is still a highly effective device to enable high learning transparency. • Consider formative assessment activities as a means for gathering information to improve feedback, and not only to control and grade learners. Engage learners in dialogic-guidance feedback formats. Learners expect support, they must receive it. In case of overburden, focus on the monitoring of collaborative activities as they provide an open window to the learners’ learning process. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control, reflection and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To develop a four-dimension evaluation framework and apply it to an empirical study with digital educational games in geography. | IX: learning experience, gaming experiences, usability. DX: learning efficiency. N = 16. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test. | • Activity theory can be used to describe user experiences in digital educational games. Four dimensions were identified: gaming experience, learning experience, adaptively and usability. | Att.: Learner control and interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To explore motives of young and old learners to participate in two ICT-course settings: e-learning and face-to-face courses. • To exploring individual differences in learning motivation between young and older learners in the field of computer based learning. | IX: belonging, instrumentality, personal growth, and competition. DX: learning motivation and personality. N = 211. Method: quant. survey. | • Older learners expressed stronger motives of belonging and personal growth, and thus expressed a stronger interest in self-determined and intrinsic learning and social motives. Young learners, in contrast, strongly endorsed competitive-related motives of learning. • Older learners showed higher instrumentality when the difference between chronological age and subjective age is big. | Attributes: interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To explore positive factors for the acceptance of m-learning systems. | IX: learners’ satisfaction, learners’ autonomy, system functions, interaction and communication activities. DX: acceptance toward mobile learning. N = 152. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey. | • Enhancing learners’ satisfaction, encouraging learners’ autonomy, empowering system functions, and enriching interaction and communication activities have a significant positive influence on the acceptance of m-learning systems. • A classification for m-learning affordances is presented: educational content and knowledge delivery application, adaptive learning application, interactive application, collaborative application and individual application. | Att.: personalization, calibration, scaffolding and interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To explore the determinants of the e-learning continuance intention of learners with different levels of e-learning experience. • To examine the moderating effects of e-learning experience on the relationships among the determinants. | IX: frequency of negative critical incidents, perceived ease of use and attitude. DX: continuance intention. N = 83. Method: quant. survey. | • Five exogenous constructs have a direct or indirect effect on the learners’ continuance decision, namely negative critical incidents, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, quality attributes cumulative satisfaction, and attitude. • Negative critical incidents and attitude are the key drivers of continuance intention in the e-learning environment, irrespective of the user’s prior level of e-learning experience. | Att.: calibration and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To identify characteristics of a website encourage enjoyable online learning. • To identify what design guidelines lead to websites that support enjoyable online learning experiences. | IX: engagement, affect and fulfilment. DX: web enjoyment experiences. N = 615. Method: quant. survey. | • Identification of characteristics: novelty, harmonization, no time constraint, proper facilitations and associations. • Identification of guidelines: designing multisensory learning experiences, creating a storyline, mood building, fun in learning, and establishing social interaction. | Att.: learner control and interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To identify perspectives of teachers and learners of podcasting acceptance on campus. | IX: individual differences, facilitating conditions and social influences. DX: behavioural intent. N = 99. Method: quant. survey. | • There is a positive relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention and between effort expectancy and behavioural intention. • Individual difference factors for the learner showed significant paths to effort expectancy for only personal innovativeness and self-efficacy. Finally the relationship between personal innovativeness and performance expectancy was significant. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To identify the advantages and disadvantages of computer-aided online distance learning for college teachers. | IX: conception on learning (metacognition and cognitive strategies). DX: learning outcomes and academic performance. N = 118. Method: qual. case study + interview. | • Advantages of online distance learning: resourcefulness and adaptability or flexibility were identified. • Disadvantages of online distance learning: limited interaction (lack of interaction causes problems), little instructional variation, the metacognitive and cognitive strategies needed, self-regulation needed and IT-skills needed were identified. | Att.: personalization and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To investigate whether learners’ approaches to learning via online peer assessment will show a stronger relationship to learning outcomes than their respective conceptions of learning. | IX: self-conceptions of learning. DX: learning outcomes and approach to learning. N = 163. Method: quant. experiment + qual. interview. | • At the main level there was a significant association between conceptions and approaches. • Learners embarking on distance education seem to hold distinctive conceptions of learning, which suggests that conceptions of learning are culturally and contextually dependent. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To determine what the effects of positive, neutral or negative feedback presented to collaborating teams of learners, on learners’ intrinsic motivation, performance and on group processes are. | IX: positive, neutral or negative feedback. DX: learners’ intrinsic motivation, performance and group processes. N = 138. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Significant positive effect of feelings of autonomy and competence on report of interest. They reduce the interest variance between sessions substantially. • More autonomous learners gain more interest than their peers from positive respectively negative feedback. The relative interest gain of autonomous learners from negative feedback is striking. Feelings of competence also facilitate the effects of positive and negative feedback. | Att.: authenticity, calibration, reflection and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To develop a mobile and online learning journal to support reflection on workplace experiences. | IX: attitude toward using technologies, motivational support, response to changes, perceptions of the work environment, feedback / support / guidance (prompts), attitude toward reflection and intention to use. DX: usage behaviour. N = 16. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + log file analysis + qual. interview + survey. | • Three influencing factors: interest, acceptance and the need for participation and feedback from instructor. • Implications: stimulation of reflection is important, strong guidance and feedback about reflection, relevance of the mobile and online learning journal and use of the mobile and online learning journal. • The use of reflective online learning journals, without the incentive of marks, is relevant and feasible. | Att.: reflection. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To develop and test the self-regulated learning-profession vision scheme for assessing pre-service teachers’ integration of professional vision considerations while analysing two delivery modes for teaching of self-regulated learning: direct and indirect teaching. | IX: cognition, metacognitive and motivational strategies. DX: self-regulation. N = 26. Method: qual. case study + pre- and post-analysis. | • Active management of motivational processes is essential. • This by using causal attribution, action control and feedback. | Att.: authenticity, learner control, scaffolding, reflection and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
Michinov and Michinov ( 2007) | • To investigate group development during an online learning session among learners involved in lifelong learning. | IX: use of various modes of communication, need for physical contact, motivation, feelings experienced during the online learning session, perceived cohesion, group development and affect. DX: learner satisfaction, perceived learning outcome and evaluation. N = 7. Method: qual. case study + log file analysis + survey. | • A transition period at the midpoint of the collaborative activity shows a decline of task-oriented communications, motivation and positive mood in this period. Stronger attention is particularly useful during a transition period at the midpoint of an online collaborative activity. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To examine an integrated model of technology acceptance model and DeLone & McLean’s model for predicting learners’ actual use of e-learning. • To explore the effects of quality features, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness on learners’ intentions and satisfaction, along-side the mediating effect of usability towards use of e-learning in Iran. | IX: satisfaction (educational quality, service quality, technical system quality, content and information quality) and intention to use (educational quality, service quality, technical system quality, content and information quality, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness). DX: actual use. N = 390. Method: quant. survey. | • Providing an application which is aesthetically satisfying, user-friendly, structurally designed, flexible, environmentally attractive, reliable, and secure which optimizes response time and provides interactive features are recommended. • Appropriate arrangement of time and application environment, possibility of content printing and transferring by the way of application without being detached, possibility of controlling all aspects of the system while working, the presence of a fixed available menu for users, supporting content and information with images, videos, and sounds, evolving e-learning communication towards voice communication and video conference, and expanding requisite IT infrastructure are alternatives in this regard. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control and interaction. LX: motivation. |
Mohammadyari and Singh ( 2015) | • To understand the role of digital literacy the effect of e-learning on learners’ performance. | IX: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, individuals social influence, organizational support and intent to continue using IT. DX: performance. N = 34. Method: quant. survey. | • Significant influence of: digital literacy on learners’ performance and effort expectations, performance expectations on learners’ intentions to continue using Web 2.0 tools, and continuance intention on performance. • Individual digital literacy facilitates the use of e-learning, and should be considered when examining the impact of the latter on performance. | Att.: calibration and interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To determine whether gradually introducing learners to increasingly more sophisticated or comprehensive subject matter was expected to enhance performance success. • To determine whether the progression of model order was predicted to yield higher performance success than model elaboration progression. | IX: time on task, perspective, degree of elaboration, and order. DX: performance success. N = 84. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + log file analysis. | • The model order progression enhanced learners’ task performance, a comparison among the two model progression conditions confirmed the predicted superiority of the model order progression condition. • Comparison of learners final models indicated that model order progression and model elaboration progression learners were equally proficient in identifying which elements are relevant to their models, whereas model order progression participants more accurately modelled the relations between these elements. | Att.: authenticity, scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To report how learners use the tutoring tool and learn self-regulation skills. | IX: learning skills, keywords and advance organizers, application of theories and self-assessment. DX: overall satisfaction and continuing motivation. N = 256. Method: quant. survey. | • The tool presented is the most useful for learners who have difficulties in learning or who do not have stable learning strategies and skills, or who are at an early stage of their studies. • Tutoring towards self-regulation is highly needed. There is too little guidance for study skills and learning strategies in both campus-based and virtual studies. | Att.: calibration, reflection and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether resident learners participating in an Internet based e-mentoring course would form a community of learners and hold regular community meetings. • To determine whether resident learners’ and faculty perceptions of community of learners and Internet sessions are effective as learning experiences. | IX: self-regulation, peer mentoring and collaborative problem solving. DX: participation community of learners. N = 10. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + log file analysis + survey + qual. interviews. | • Learner adoption of community of learners behaviours was observed, including self-regulation, peer mentoring and collaborative problem solving. High learner enthusiasm and value for community of learners. • High levels of acceptance of Internet learning experiences were observed, although there was room for improvement in audio-visual transmission technologies. The study demonstrated learner acceptance of community building and collaborative learning as valued learning experiences. | Att.: personalization and interaction. LX: metacognition. |
| • To explore the relationship between the occurrence of reflection (and non- reflection) and thinking activities (e.g. orientating, selecting, analysing) during portfolio based conversations. | IX: reflection. DX: orientating on the task, orientating on one’s own portfolio, judging negatively, attributing to oneself, attributing to others and circumstances intending. N = 21. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + coding schemes. | • Thinking activities comparing, analysing and concluding occurred significantly more often during reflection than during non-reflection. Orientating on the task, selecting and describing, occurred significantly less often during reflection. • The outcomes show that the occurrence of certain thinking activities can be an indication of reflection. | Att.: authenticity, reflection. LX: metacognition. |
| • To examine whether participation in an online module on ‘the differential diagnosis of dyspnoea’ impacts on learner performance in a multiple choice examination. | IX: interest, perceived ability to use a computer and perceived knowledge. DX: learner satisfaction, perceived learning outcome and evaluation of the online module. N = 74. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Learners using an online module scored higher in a test than learners not included in the study, despite comparable achievement levels before entering the study. • The online module is likely to have increased learners’ motivation to learn, and subsequent learning was not restricted to the content of the online module. | Att.: personalization and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To investigate the adapted delivery by telephone for the ‘beating fatigue programme’. | IX: interest, perceived ability to use a computer and perceived knowledge. DX: learner satisfaction, perceived learning outcome and evaluation of the online module. N = 64. Method: quant. experiment + qual. interview. | • Motivational interviewing appeared key to the intervention’s success. • Effects of the telephone-delivered version were similar to those generated by the in-person intervention. Helping learners explore benefits of maintaining / enhancing activity establishing attainable goals and facilitating their attainment of them. | Att.: calibration and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To explore the emotional experiences of instructors in online learning environments. • To explore how instructors attempt to regulate their challenging emotions when participating in online learning environments. | IX: online learning environments. DX: regulation of emotions and feelings. N = 6. Method: qual. interview. | • Overarching themes included emotions of feeling restricted, stressed, devalued, validated, and rejuvenated. • A consensus among all instructors is that continuous dialogue in a community of practice about strategies to enhance online learning environments is imperative. | Attributes: interaction. LX: metacognition. |
| • To investigate the effectiveness of multimedia design principles for different target groups, to match learners’ profiles. | IX: receiving personalized computer-based programme and receiving a formal version. DX: performance on transfer and retention. N = 127. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + survey + qual. document analysis. | • Personalized learning materials promote motivation and learning regardless of the target population. Mean effect sizes and evidence that personalized learning material positively influences retention. • An practical implication for design is that communicative features expressed in a personalized style seem to engage learners across different educational settings in active learning processing. | Att.: personalization, learner control and interaction. LX: cognition. |
| • To understand the role of five different dimensions of cognitive absorption in training outcomes and how affective and cognitive involvements leverage this learning process. | IX: enjoyment, immersion, dissociation, curiosity and control. DX: affective and cognitive involvement. N = 501. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test. | • Cognitive absorption plays a significant role in affecting learners’ deep involvement, which in turn impacts training outcomes. • Heightened enjoyment, focused immersion, temporal dissociation, and control are crucial to leverage learning but indirectly by increasing the cognitive involvement of the trainee. The results further indicate a direct effect of heightened enjoyment, focused immersion, temporal dissociation and curiosity on perceived usefulness. • Moreover, perceived usefulness has a direct effect on perceived learning. | Att.: interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To propose a decomposed technology acceptance model in the context of an e-learning service. | IX: satisfaction, confirmation and perceived quality. DX: e-learning continuance intention. N = 172. Method: quant. survey. | • Learners continuance intention is determined by satisfaction, which in turn is jointly determined by perceived usefulness, information quality, confirmation, service quality, system quality, perceived ease of use and cognitive absorption. • Instructors can increase learners’ usage intention by improving their beliefs of how the e-learning system can enhance their performance and effectiveness. | Att.: interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To examine whether individual interest in computers moderated the effect of adding usefulness information predicting higher engagement levels, which in turn predicted motivation and performance outcomes. | IX: individual interest, anticipated usefulness, anticipated interest. DX: engagement, motivation, performance outcomes, regulation of interest and learning online. N = 108. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Individual interest in computers did not directly affect motivation and performance outcomes, nor did it directly affect learners’ patterns of engagement during the lesson. • When there was little pre-existing interest, the explicit connections to how individuals could use the skills in real life were more motivating when framed in terms of potential work applications. | Att.: authenticity, personalization. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To examine learners’ self-reported use of strategies to motivate studying for the first exam. | IX: self-grades importance, persuade self to work, real life application, enjoyment of game, enjoyment of other learners, enjoyable links, interest and first exam grades. DX: final interest and final grades. N = 110. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Learning online did not differ with learning in the on-campus context in the degree to which learners reported using motivational strategies that emphasized the value of potential studying-related outcomes. • Strategies aimed at enhancing or sustaining motivation to reach learning outcomes may be more defined in terms of strengthening why learners should exert effort and persist in the learning task, and these kinds of strategies may be less dependent on the learning context. • Discouraging exploration of the Internet may negatively impact learners’ ability to sustain interested engagement while learning on their own. | Att.: scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition, metacognition and motivation. |
| • To examine the differences between online synchronous and offline face-to-face collaboration in the context of a computer-supported modelling task. | IX: collaboration type. DX: modelling processes, interactions and learning outcomes. N = 16. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + qual. observation. | • Learners who worked online in pairs emphasized analysis and synthesis, they also demonstrated a higher learning gain. Offline pairs needed the instructors’ support and demonstrated stronger social interaction. • Actions of offline dyads were more numerous, the dyads that worked online seemed to present more task oriented actions. | Att.: authenticity, calibration, scaffolding and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To examine what registered care home nurses’ and senior care home assistants’ educational priorities regarding stroke care are and how they conceive stroke care will be delivered. | IX: preferred type of delivery and reasons to undertake further training. DX: perceived need for stroke training. N = 134. Method: qual. interview + survey. | • Senior care assistants needed more information on multidisciplinary team working while care home nurses were more concerned with ethical decision-making, accountability and goal setting. • Both the care home nurses and senior care assistants are clear that stroke education should be to the benefit of their resident population. | Attributes: personalization. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To determine whether knowledge articulation dialogue increases online university science course outcomes. | IX: teaching method. DX: final grades. N = 52. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + test. | • When the knowledge articulation dialogue online facilitation method was applied, learners went through a learning curve effect, but thereafter, their knowledge articulation was be strengthened. • If the questioning approach was used, this may result in favourable scores early on, but overall the remaining deliverables and final marks may be lower. • It is suggested this knowledge articulation dialogue method would better suit quantitative subject matter courses. | Att.: reflection and interaction. LX: cognition. |
Tan and Richardson ( 2006) | • To investigate the writing of short messages, using a sociocultural perspective of literacy as a social discursive practice that implicates identity construction. | IX: SMS messages, messages in class and online messages. DX: out-of-school practices. N = 31. Method: qual. document analysis + interviews. | • In assigned school writing, the activity was one of language study and practice entailing the maintenance of school values and academic and examination discourse. School writing, done within the examination-oriented and often teacher-centred class, consisted of set text types that fit examination genres. • In learners informal interactions, learners wrote freely to maintain friendship ties, to overcome boredom, and basically to fulfil their need for meaningful communication. Content in learners’ messages was unguarded and uncensored, revolving mainly around relationships, school and social life. | Att.: authenticity, personalization and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To comprehend the teachers’ and learners’ perceptions on concerns toward e-learning issues. | IX: learning effect, administrative challenges, customization, geographic and content integration and instructional design challenges. DX: perception on institutional e-learning issues N = 145. Method: quant. survey. | • Learners have black-or-white perceptions on the use of e-learning, they see learner and administrative support as crucial and rather feel a lack of competitive awareness on the professional market. | Att.: personalization and interaction. LX: metacognition. |
| • To analyse the monetary value learners place on having access, via the internet, to recorded lectures in a blended learning context. | IX; university fixed price for iLectures to maximize revenue and learner demographics. DX: learner choice to purchase iLectures at a fixed price and learner perceptions of iLectures and face-to-face lectures. N = 1932. Method: quant. survey. | • It is necessary to be cautious of qualitative valuations of iLectures. • It appears that some learners may agree that something is worthwhile if they perceive it to be free. | Attributes: interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To proposes a notion for helping instructors design an innovative mobile learning practice in specific subject domain. • To determine whether learners accept the proposed learning activity and perceive the claimed learning benefits | IX: relationship, perception and attitude toward learning technology. DX: willingness to use learning technology. N = 57. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test + survey. | • Mobile technologies add new dimensions to learning activities, both the personal and portable nature of the devices, as the kinds of learning interactions they can support. Mobile learning enables learners to interact and capture experiences in both physical and social realms, and makes learning more experiential and multifaceted. • Guidelines: mapping subject content onto social interactions, recording social interactions, synthesis of group behaviours and subject content and delivery of instructional information and visualization of the design framework. | Att.: authenticity, learner control, scaffolding, refection-evoking and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To propose and validate a self-regulation model that explores the effects of social capital and social cognitive factors on knowledge-sharing behaviour. | IX: community identity and interpersonal trust. DX: social awareness, knowledge-sharing behaviour and knowledge-sharing self-efficacy. N = ?. Method: quant. survey. | • Knowledge-sharing behaviours in the online community exhibit a triadic interplay among the community identify, interpersonal trust, social awareness, learners’ perception of self-efficacy, and knowledge-sharing behaviour in the online environment. | Att.: interaction. LX: metacognition. |
| • To fill the research gap between the growth and commercial potential of virtual worlds and the relatively little knowledge about users’ motivations to engage in them. | IX: perceived usefulness, entertainment value, economic value, perceived ease of use, escapism and visual attractiveness. DX: attitude towards using a virtual world, entertainment value, perceived usefulness. N = 846. Method: quant. survey. | • Strong direct effects of the extrinsic motivation perceived usefulness and the intrinsic motivation entertainment value on the attitude towards virtual world usage. • Higher levels of economic value, perceived ease of use and escapism contribute to the perceived entertainment value and usefulness of virtual world systems. • Visual attractiveness did not contribute to the perceived usefulness of virtual worlds. | Att.: personalization, calibration and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
Vighnarajah et al. ( 2009) | • To investigate learners’ perception on participation in a discussion platform, on the importance of practicing self-regulated learning strategies and on the development of self-regulated learning strategies through participation in the discussion platform. | IX: intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy for learning and performance, metacognitive self-regulation, time and study environment, effort regulation, peer learning and help seeking. DX: overall development of self-regulated learning strategies. N = 50. Method: quant. experiment + survey. | • Learners acknowledged practicing self-regulated learning strategies. Frequent strategies appear to be intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, control of learning beliefs, rehearsal, elaboration, critical thinking, peer learning, and help seeking. • Strategies that interest learners the least are task value, effort regulation, and metacognitive self-regulation. | Att.: calibration, scaffolding and interaction. LX: metacognition. |
von Bastian and Oberauer ( 2013) | • To examine the impact of working memory training on a broad set of transfer tasks. | IX: working memory training. DX: transfer tasks. N = 137. Method: quant. experiment + pre- and post-test. | • Degree of improvement in the training tasks correlated positively with the magnitude of transfer. • Differential effects of training different functional categories of working memory and executive functions could explain why previous studies yielded mixed results. | Att.: authenticity. LX: cognition. |
| • To assess the impact of a hybrid teaching methodology on improving critical thinking in an health policy elective course. | IX: hybrid teaching methodology. DX: critical thinking. N = 8. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + pre- and post-test + qual. interview | • Learners reported that their ability to effectively participate improved significantly although the assessment showed mixed findings. • The course benefited from being new and giving the learners a broad view. • Critical thinking was improved among the learners. | Att.: personalization, scaffolding, reflection and interaction. LX: cognition and metacognition. |
| • To determine whether scaffolding services support self-regulated learning in an augmented simulator. | IX: scaffolding service, training in the simulator and augmented simulator. DX: relevance for real life experiences, self-regulated learning, and enhanced learning experience. N = 113. Method: quant. experiment + log-file analysis + survey. | • Addition of thinking prompts by the scaffolding service was beneficial. Time spent with the simulation increased. • Positive effect of the refinements of thinking prompts and / or affective element added to the scaffolding service. • The type of notes taken by the learners, during the think aloud method, supports the assumption that scaffolding support fosters metacognition and reflection. | Att.: authenticity, personalization, learner control, calibration, scaffolding and interaction. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To determine how social conflict evolve in an online class and what the relations between social and learning interactions in an online social learning environment are. | IX: social interaction. DX: learning interaction. N = 18. Method: qual. case study + interviews. | • A model of social conflict evolution within the learning community is identified consisting of five general phases: cultural initiation, social harmonization cycle, escalation of conflict, intervention and stabilization, and adjourning. • Strong relationships between social and learning interactions during these five phases of social conflict development. | Att.: authenticity and interaction. LX: motivation. |
| • To investigate college learners’ conceptions of and approaches to learning via online peer assessment (PA). | IX: online peer assessment. DX: conceptions of and approaches to learning. N = 163. Method: quant. quasi-experiment + qual. interviews. | • Conceptions emphasizing on fragmented and cohesive learning tended to be associated with approaches focusing on surface and deep learning. • Approaches to learning via online peer assessment were less related to the learning outcomes than conceptions of learning. • Support for deep learning is advisable. | Att.: scaffolding and reflection. LX: metacognition and motivation. |
| • To investigate the feasibility of developing e-learning. • To examine reasons for adopting or rejecting e-learning as an alternative way to conduct continuing education for public health nurses. | IX: age, education level, marital status, job position and previous experience in web-based learning. DX: feasibility of adopting e-learning as an alternative way of continuing education and reasons for adopting or rejecting e-learning. N = 233. Method: quant. survey. | • Asynchronous e-learning courses are suitable for individuals with high self-control, it allows them to learn in remote locations according to their own needs and pace. • Needs assessment is strongly recommended in the programme preparation stage. Only by fulfilling learners; individual needs, reducing learning barriers, increasing their motivation and self-controlling ability, can this approach be successful. | Att.: personalization and learner control and reflection. cLX: metacognition and motivation. |