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2015 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

7. Energy Intensity

verfasst von : Matthew Kuperus Heun, Michael Carbajales-Dale, Becky Roselius Haney

Erschienen in: Beyond GDP

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Energy intensity, the ratio of total energy consumed during the manufacture of a product to the economic value of that product expressed in units of J/\$, is an inherently useful metric that describes the accumulation of energy consumption and economic value along the pathways traveled by products through an economy. It is a key piece of information that can help consumers and firms alike make wise consumption and investment decisions in the age of resource depletion. The Energy Input-Output (EI–O) method, developed by Bullard, Herendeen, and others as an extension to Leontief's groundbreaking work, has been used historically to develop static estimates of the energy intensity of products within economy. Unfortunately, energy intensity is not routinely estimated, and, if it is, it erroneously does not account for the energy embodied in our accumulating stock of manufactured capital. In this chapter, we extend the EI–O method to develop a mathematical technique to estimate energy intensity in a dynamic economy, one that can accumulate manufactured capital in its sectors. As in previous chapters, the equations are developed by example in increasingly-disaggregated model economies. We review several studies of energy intensity of the US auto industry in the literature and note a wide range of results from one study to the next. The estimates of energy intensity also vary with time. The range of energy intensities for the auto sector is $0.83 \times 10^{4}$ kJ/$ to $10.7 \times 10_{4}$ kJ/$.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Stocks and Flows of Economic Value

Nächstes Kapitel Implications

The literature discusses the energy embodied in products. For example, “The data and methodologies described in this report permit calculation of five types of energy ‘embodied’ in a particular goods [sic] or service” [1, p. 268]. It can be meaningful to discuss the energy intensity of processes, too, and we switch between these two meanings of the word “embodied.”

Note that Fig. 7.1a is similar to the clockwork metaphor and traditional model of the economy discussed in relation to the era of abundance in Sect. 2.1.1.

The traditional primary factors of production (land, capital, and labor) are not flows into the production processes. Rather, they are stocks that, when present, allow factors of production (steel, rubber, and glass) to be transformed into final products (automobiles). The quantity and quality of these stocks determine the quantity and quality of their flow of productive services.

Or, more precisely, the degradation of an exergetic gradient/destruction of exergy.

Note that Fig. 7.1b is similar to the machine metaphor and engine model from the era of energy constraints discussed in Sect. 2.1.2

In our framework, solar energy flows could be accounted as short-term ($\dot{S}$) flows for agricultural and forestry sectors and for solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, ocean thermal, hydro, and biomass renewable energy production sectors. Doing so would not account for longer-term storage of solar energy used to form fossil fuels, but fossil fuels are already accounted by the energy input vector ($\mathbf{E}_{0}$) in the framework presented in this book. See the introduction to Chap. 5 for a short discussion of another approach: emergy.

The make-use method is sometimes also called the supply-use method.

It is possible to pursue hybrid top-down and bottom-up analysis methods. The hybrid approach utilizes data from an EI–O analysis to supplement the missing data from truncation of a process analysis. The financial cost of goods and services identified by the process analysis are converted to energy (or material) flows via the EI–O method. The truncation error is replaced by a smaller aggregation error due to limitations of the EI–O method [1]. A variety of other hybrid methods exist which also aim to overcome the limitations of either process or I–O methods [1, 15–18].

Note that Figs. 7.1c and d are similar to the metabolic metaphor that we propose for the age of resource depletion as discussed in Sect. 2.1.3.

The energy it took to create and emplace durable goods and infrastructure can be considered “embodied” within the built environment, a point to which we will return in detail later.

See Sect. 6.1 for a discussion of theories of value.

It may be instructive to consider energy intensity as the quotient of embodied energy (in units of J/kg) and price (in $/kg).

If this approach is unsatisfactory, the sector may be divided into subsectors each with its own energy intensity.

Oil spills and gas leaks notwithstanding. Remember also that waste heat outflows ($\dot{Q}_{20}$) are allocated to the product.

The parenthetical terms on the right side of Eq. 7.36 are $(\mathbf{A}^{\mathrm{T}} - \mathbf{I})$ and $\left[ \frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{B}_{K}}{\mathrm{d}t} + \mathbf{B}_{\dot{W}} + \hat{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}_{B} \mathbf{B}_{K} - \mathbf{E}_{0} - \mathbf{T}_{1} \right]$.

Costanza’s analysis [3] was conducted using US data for 1963, 1967, and 1972.

For a discussion of differences between Eq. 7.37 and similar equations in the literature, see Appendix E.

See Sect. 5.5 for discussion of the Berry and Fels [30] paper.

Values from Costanza and Herendeen’s DIRECT method are provided here. See Sect. 7.7 for discussion of the differences between DIRECT and DEC methods and justification for reporting DIRECT method values only.

The US national accounts data has not been updated since 2002. The issue of national accounts data is discussed in more detail in Chap. 9.

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Titel: Energy Intensity
verfasst von: Matthew Kuperus Heun
Michael Carbajales-Dale
Becky Roselius Haney
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Beyond GDP
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12819-1

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-12820-7

Copyright-Jahr: 2015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12820-7_7

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