Introduction
Materials and methods
Data source and sample
Outcome variables
Travel mode attitudes
Sociodemographic and spatial context characteristics
Statistical analyses
Results
Descriptive analysis
Variables | Total sample (N = 2673) | Respondents reporting any bicycle commuting (N = 584) | Respondents reporting any cycling for other purposes (N = 1023) |
---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables | |||
Mean cycling duration (hours) (SD) | 0.27 (0.52) | 0.44 (0.43) | 0.46 (0.62) |
Mean number of cycling trips (SD) | 1.1 (1.6) | 1.5 (0.8) | 2.1 (1.5) |
Socioeconomic characteristics | |||
Age | |||
18–29 | 24.4% | 35.3% | 22.7% |
30–39 | 15.2% | 13% | 13.8% |
40–49 | 21.4% | 20% | 19.3% |
50–59 | 20.6% | 22.9% | 20.1% |
60–69 | 10.7% | 6.8% | 14.2% |
70+ | 7.8% | 1.9% | 10.2% |
Gender | |||
Male | 45.8% | 40.2% | 37.2% |
Female | 54.2% | 59.8% | 62.8% |
Education | |||
Low | 21.5% | 19.5% | 22.6% |
Medium | 40.1% | 40.4% | 38.5% |
High | 38.4% | 40.1% | 38.9% |
Gross household income | |||
< €26,000 | 19.4% | 26.7% | 23.3% |
€26,000–65,000 | 56.6% | 50.2% | 55.2% |
> €65,000 | 24% | 23.1% | 21.5% |
Children < 12 years | |||
No | 80.7% | 84.4% | 81.3% |
Yes | 19.3% | 15.6% | 18.7% |
Employment status | |||
Multiple occupations including paid labor | 61.5% | 68.5% | 50.7% |
Student | 11.2% | 22.3% | 12.1% |
Retired and other unemployed | 27.3% | 9.2% | 37.1% |
Car availability | |||
Always a car available | 64.4% | 41.4% | 53.8% |
Not always a car available | 22.6% | 38.2% | 29.2% |
No car available | 13.1% | 20.4% | 17% |
Municipal urbanization level | |||
Very highly urbanized | 18.9% | 25% | 22.1% |
Highly urbanized | 28.6% | 31.7% | 28.2% |
Moderately urbanized | 23.6% | 23.8% | 25.1% |
Less urbanized/rural areas | 28.8% | 19.5% | 24.6% |
Factor analysis on attitudinal factors
Factor | Statement variable | Component | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||
Bus/tram/metro attitudes factor α = 0.896 | Travelling by bus/tram/metro is pleasurable | 0.811 | |||
Travelling by bus/tram/metro is comfortable | 0.805 | ||||
Travelling by bus/tram/metro provides flexibility | 0.783 | ||||
Travelling by bus/tram/metro saves me time | 0.764 | ||||
Travelling by bus/tram/metro is relaxing | 0.777 | ||||
Personal impression of the bus/tram/metro | 0.614 | ||||
Car attitudes factor α = 0.865 | Travelling by car is pleasurable | 0.829 | |||
Travelling by car is comfortable | 0.820 | ||||
Travelling by car is relaxing | 0.755 | ||||
Travelling by car provides flexibility | 0.710 | ||||
Travelling by car is safe | 0.699 | ||||
Personal impression of the car | 0.685 | ||||
Travelling by car saves me time | 0.709 | ||||
Cycling attitudes factor α = 0.856 | Cycling is pleasurable | 0.852 | |||
Cycling is relaxing | 0.838 | ||||
Cycling is comfortable | 0.805 | ||||
Cycling provides flexibility | 0.713 | ||||
Personal impression of the bicycle, e-bike | 0.670 | ||||
Cycling is safe | 0.595 | ||||
Cycling saves me time | 0.602 | ||||
Train attitudes factor α = 0.873 | Travelling by train is relaxing | 0.769 | |||
Travelling by train is comfortable | 0.745 | ||||
Travelling by train is pleasurable | 0.742 | ||||
Travelling by train is safe | 0.699 | ||||
Personal impression of the train | 0.669 |
Multivariate regression analysis
Bicycle commuting
Variables | Bicycle commuting usage | Bicycle commuting duration | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1a Coef. (S.E.) | Model 1b Coef. (S.E.) | Model 2a Coef. (S.E.) | Model 2b Coef. (S.E.) | |
Constant | − 1.968*** (0.256) | − 2.010***(0.263) | − 0.803***(0.103) | − 0.819***(0.104) |
Age | ||||
18–29 (ref.) | ||||
30–39 | 0.0655 (0.206) | 0.0546 (0.213) | 0.038 (0.0793) | 0.045 (0.0804) |
40–49 | 0.403** (0.190) | 0.343* (0.202) | 0.165** (0.0735) | 0.155** (0.0762) |
50–59 | 0.507*** (0.188) | 0.462** (0.198) | 0.213*** (0.0727) | 0.195*** (0.0753) |
60–69 | 0.589** (0.267) | 0.604** (0.281) | 0.283*** (0.100) | 0.276*** (0.104) |
70+ | 0.211 (0.402) | 0.158 (0.434) | 0.106 (0.143) | 0.101 (0.148) |
Gender | ||||
Male (ref.) | ||||
Female | 0.288*** (0.107) | 0.309*** (0.113) | 0.077* (0.0412) | 0.09** (0.0427) |
Education | ||||
Low (ref.) | ||||
Medium | − 0.00126 (0.146) | 0.00119 (0.149) | − 0.034 (0.0558) | − 0.034 (0.0563) |
High | 0.0125 (0.157) | 0.0304 (0.165) | 0.018 (0.0597) | 0.025 (0.0616) |
Gross household income | ||||
< €26,000 (ref.) | ||||
€26,000–65,000 | − 0.458*** (0.140) | − 0.486*** (0.144) | − 0.164*** (0.0538) | − 0.173*** (0.0549) |
> €65,000 | − 0.541*** (0.168) | − 0.576*** (0.176) | − 0.167*** (0.0641) | − 0.177*** (0.0661) |
Children < 12 years | ||||
No (ref.) | ||||
Yes | − 0.186 (0.156) | − 0.0955 (0.162) | − 0.079 (0.0601) | − 0.055 (0.0614) |
Employment status | ||||
Multiple occupations including paid labor (ref.) | ||||
Student | 0.720*** (0.200) | 0.692*** (0.205) | 0.269*** (0.0770) | 0.266*** (0.0777) |
Retired and other unemployed | − 1.792*** (0.201) | − 1.756*** (0.213) | − 0.705*** (0.0749) | − 0.681*** (0.0776) |
Car availability | ||||
Always a car available (ref.) | ||||
Not always a car available | 1.019*** (0.127) | 1.101*** (0.133) | 0.397*** (0.0500) | 0.412*** (0.0517) |
No car available | 0.831*** (0.165) | 0.868*** (0.171) | 0.340*** (0.0641) | 0.341*** (0.0651) |
Municipality level | ||||
Very highly urbanized | 0.576*** (0.164) | 0.548*** (0.172) | 0.197*** (0.0631) | 0.187*** (0.0651) |
Highly urbanized | 0.499*** (0.146) | 0.491*** (0.153) | 0.171*** (0.0559) | 0.167*** (0.0574) |
Moderately urbanized | 0.565*** (0.152) | 0.588*** (0.157) | 0.179*** (0.0583) | 0.194*** (0.0594) |
Less urbanized/rural area (ref.) | ||||
Attitudinal factors | ||||
FBusa | − 0.0207 (0.0547) | − 0.0161 (0.0588) | 0.003 (0.0209) | 0.008 (0.0219) |
Fcycleb | 0.555*** (0.0628) | 0.531* (0.300) | 0.208*** (0.0243) | 0.161 (0.111) |
FCarc | − 0.265***(0.0543) | − 0.251*** (0.0576) | − 0.086*** (0.0209) | − 0.084*** (0.0219) |
FTraind | − 0.0525 (0.0533) | − 0.0630 (0.0579) | − 0.034* (0.0204) | − 0.033 (0.0218) |
Interaction terms | ||||
Age × Fcycle | ||||
18–29 (ref.) | ||||
30–39 | − 0.0386 (0.241) | − 0.073 (0.0920) | ||
40–49 | 0.189 (0.226) | 0.039 (0.0845) | ||
50–59 | 0.163 (0.231) | 0.068 (0.0864) | ||
60–69 | 0.00542 (0.310) | 0.033 (0.115) | ||
70+ | 0.204 (0.466) | 0.052 (0.161) | ||
Gender × Fcycle | ||||
Male (ref.) | ||||
Female | − 0.0729 (0.129) | − 0.059 (0.0485) | ||
Education × Fcycle | ||||
Low (ref.) | ||||
Medium | 0.156 (0.163) | 0.101 (0.0617) | ||
High | 0.115 (0.181) | 0.094 (0.0677) | ||
Income × Fcycle | ||||
< €26,000 (ref.) | ||||
€26,000–65,000 | 0.0603 (0.164) | 0.049 (0.0610) | ||
> €65,000 | 0.147 (0.208) | 0.084 (0.0768) | ||
Children < 12 years × Fcycle | ||||
No (ref.) | ||||
Yes | − 0.376** (0.183) | − 0.143** (0.0699) | ||
Employment status × Fcycle | ||||
Multiple occupations including paid labor (ref.) | ||||
Student | − 0.0565 (0.227) | − 0.019 (0.0851) | ||
Retired and other unemployed | − 0.158 (0.242) | − 0.064 (0.0887) | ||
Car availability × Fcycle | ||||
Always a car available (ref.) | ||||
Not always a car available | − 0.332** (0.152) | − 0.106* (0.0573) | ||
No car available | − 0.0566 (0.196) | − 0.015 (0.0721) | ||
Urbanization level × Fcycle | ||||
Very highly urbanized | 0.185 (0.191) | 0.093 (0.0726) | ||
Highly urbanized | 0.0455 (0.171) | 0.028 (0.0643) | ||
Moderately urbanized | − 0.0367 (0.181) | − 0.039 (0.0688) | ||
Less urbanized/rural area (ref.) | ||||
Fbus × Fcycle | − 0.0572 (0.0626) | − 0.038* (0.0231) | ||
Fcar × Fcycle | − 0.0479 (0.0622) | − 0.006 (0.0231) | ||
Ftrain × Fcycle | 0.0373 (0.0573) | 0.005 (0.0217) | ||
Model fit | ||||
Log-likelihood | − 1154.8988 | − 1144.2881 | − 1288.9280 | − 1275.0898 |
Ps.R2 (McFadden) | 0.177 | 0.185 | 0.156 | 0.166 |
Cycling for other purposes
Variables | Bicycle usage | Cycling duration | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Model 3a Coef. (S.E.) | Model 3b Coef. (S.E.) | Model 4a Coef. (S.E.) | Model 4b Coef. (S.E.) | |
Constant | − 1.757*** (0.213) | − 1.758*** (0.213) | − 0.761*** (0.093) | − 0.762*** (0.093) |
Age | ||||
18–29 (ref.) | ||||
30–39 | 0.153 (0.177) | 0.126 (0.177) | 0.035 (0.077) | 0.025 (0.076) |
40–49 | 0.182 (0.164) | 0.182 (0.165) | 0.096 (0.071) | 0.098 (0.071) |
50–59 | 0.387** (0.164) | 0.380** (0.165) | 0.175** (0.071) | 0.168** (0.071) |
60–69 | 0.557*** (0.205) | 0.534** (0.210) | 0.327*** (0.086) | 0.301*** (0.087) |
70+ | 0.553** (0.234) | 0.533** (0.242) | 0.198** (0.098) | 0.165* (0.099) |
Gender | ||||
Male (ref.) | ||||
Female | 0.533*** (0.090) | 0.521*** (0.092) | 0.135*** (0.039) | 0.135*** (0.039) |
Education | ||||
Low (ref.) | ||||
Medium | − 0.0496 (0.119) | − 0.0468 (0.121) | − 0.046 (0.050) | − 0.037 (0.050) |
High | − 0.000373 (0.127) | − 0.0115 (0.131) | − 0.043 (0.054) | − 0.031 (0.055) |
Gross household income | ||||
< €26,000 (ref.) | ||||
€26,000–65,000 | − 0.0944 (0.117) | − 0.116 (0.119) | − 0.091* (0.050) | − 0.101** (0.050) |
> €65,000 | − 0.0735 (0.143) | − 0.0279 (0.144) | − 0.085 (0.061) | − 0.073 (0.061) |
Children < 12 years | ||||
No (ref.) | ||||
Yes | 0.310** (0.130) | 0.330** (0.131) | 0.215*** (0.056) | 0.223*** (0.056) |
Employment status | ||||
Multiple occupations including paid labor (ref.) | ||||
Student | 0.422** (0.185) | 0.406** (0.185) | 0.171** (0.080) | 0.166** (0.080) |
Retired and other unemployed | 0.698*** (0.129) | 0.695*** (0.133) | 0.379*** (0.054) | 0.376*** (0.055) |
Car availability | ||||
Always a car available (ref.) | ||||
No always a car available | 0.723*** (0.111) | 0.756*** (0.115) | 0.241*** (0.048) | 0.255*** (0.049) |
No car available | 0.591*** (0.143) | 0.644*** (0.145) | 0.251*** (0.060) | 0.277*** (0.061) |
Municipality level | ||||
Very highly urbanized | 0.423*** (0.134) | 0.434*** (0.137) | 0.192*** (0.057) | 0.183*** (0.058) |
Highly urbanized | 0.141 (0.117) | 0.158 (0.119) | 0.039 (0.050) | 0.041 (0.051) |
Moderately urbanized | 0.347*** (0.121) | 0.329*** (0.124) | 0.135*** (0.052) | 0.132** (0.052) |
Less urbanized/rural area (ref.) | ||||
Attitudinal factors | ||||
FBusa | 0.0297 (0.046) | 0.0217 (0.048) | 0.034* (0.019) | 0.032 (0.020) |
Fcycleb | 0.582*** (0.051) | − 0.0185 (0.228) | 0.240*** (0.019) | 0.115 (0.020) |
FCarc | − 0.187***(0.046) | − 0.193***(0.048) | − 0.075*** (0.022) | − 0.073*** (0.097) |
FTraind | 0.129*** (0.045) | 0.133*** (0.048) | 0.03 (0.019) | 0.031 (0.020) |
Interaction terms | ||||
Age × Fcycle | ||||
18–29 (ref.) | ||||
30–39 | 0.177 (0.196) | 0.050 (0.085) | ||
40–49 | 0.201 (0.179) | 0.045 (0.078) | ||
50–59 | 0.318* (0.185) | 0.099 (0.079) | ||
60–69 | 0.515** (0.239) | 0.186*** (0.095) | ||
70+ | 0.623** (0.280) | 0.224** (0.111) | ||
Gender × Fcycle | ||||
Male (ref.) | ||||
Female | 0.212** (0.105) | 0.012 (0.044) | ||
Education × Fcycle | ||||
Low (ref.) | ||||
Medium | − 0.141 (0.136) | − 0.118** (0.056) | ||
High | 0.0139 (0.149) | − 0.073 (0.061) | ||
Income × Fcycle | ||||
< €26,000 (ref.) | ||||
€26,000–65,000 | 0.233* (0.134) | 0.096* (0.055) | ||
> €65,000 | − 0.128 (0.166) | 0.009 (0.071) | ||
Children < 12 years × Fcycle | ||||
No (ref.) | ||||
Yes | − 0.156 (0.145) | − 0.069 (0.062) | ||
Employment Status × Fcycle | ||||
Multiple occupations including paid labor (ref.) | ||||
Student | 0.269 (0.200) | 0.104 (0.087) | ||
Retired and other unemployed | 0.152 (0.151) | 0.039 (0.061) | ||
Car availability × Fcycle | ||||
Always a car available (ref.) | ||||
Not always a car available | 0.0978 (0.135) | − 0.008 (0.057) | ||
No car available | − 0.142 (0.156) | − 0.082 (0.063) | ||
Urbanization level × Fcycle | ||||
Very highly urbanized | 0.213 (0.151) | 0.133** (0.063) | ||
Highly urbanized | 0.105 (0.133) | 0.043 (0.056) | ||
Moderately urbanized | 0.292** (0.146) | 0.082 (0.060) | ||
Less urbanized/rural area (ref.) | ||||
Fbus × Fcycle | 0.0144 (0.051) | − 0.0002 (0.021) | ||
FCar × Fcycle | − 0.0190 (0.051) | − 0.012 (0.021) | ||
FTrain × Fcycle | − 0.0288 (0.046) | − 0.014 (0.020) | ||
Model fit | ||||
Log-likelihood | − 1568.0429 | − 1546.1000 | − 1974.0220 | − 1955.7158 |
Ps.R2 (McFadden) | 0.1184 | 0.131 | 0.098 | 0.106 |