4. Climate Conflicts and International Environmental Law

Louka (2006), pp. 468, 469.

The Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), for example, seeks to solve arising problems due to noncompliance by a process, governed by the Implementation Committee. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) imposes obligations to identify and monitor the effects of activities on biodiversity pursuant to article 7 CBD.

Crawford (2002), p. 126.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 124.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 13.

Boyle (2007), p. 126.

Statute of the International Court of Justice, San Francisco 1945-06-26, in force 1945-10-24 [3 Bevans 1179; 59 Stat. 1031; T.S. 993; 39 AJIL Supp. 215 (1945)].

Henderson (2010), p. 66.

Vitzthum (2010), pp. 51, 52; Ipsen (2004), p. 116.

Anton and Mathew (2005), p. 200.

Henderson (2010), p. 58; Ipsen (2004), p. 211.

Anton and Mathew (2005), p. 202.

Henderson (2010), pp. 58, 59.

Anton and Mathew (2005), p. 202.

Shaw (2008), p. 84.

Anton and Mathew (2005), pp. 209, 210.

Shaw (2008), p. 123.

Henderson (2010), p. 72.

Fleischhauer (1992), p. 971.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 972.

Henderson (2010), p. 62.

Ibid.

Fleischhauer (1992), p. 972.

Soft law refers to nonbinding instruments. Soft law is thus not law. For further reading, see: Shaw (2008), pp. 17–19.

Henderson (2010), p. 66.

Ibid., p. 4.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 5.

Ibid., p. 5.

Vitzthum (2010), p. 69.

Ibid.

The other main Rio documents are the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Forest Principles, and the Agenda 21. Sand, UNCED and the Development of International Environmental Law, 3 YIEL (1992), p. 3.

These numbers refer to September 2014. For new developments, see: http://​unfccc.​int/​essential_​background/​convention/​status_​of_​ratification/​items/​2631.​php.

http://​unfccc.​int/​essential_​background/​convention/​status_​of_​ratification/​items/​2631txt.​php.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has 30 members. Apart from the countries of Western Europe and North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey, other countries have joined recently: Mexico, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Korea, and the Slovak Republic. For further information, see: www.​oecd.​org.

These are Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, the Russian Federation, Slovenia, and Ukraine.

Verheyen (2005), p. 56.

For further reading, see: Moss (1995), pp. 4 f. See also: European Climate Forum/PIK 2004, p. 4.

The legal status of the decisions of the COP is highly debated. The COP is not an international organization, and thus its decisions are not legally binding beyond the regime of the treaty. However, COP decisions represent the will of all parties and could therefore also be seen as binding international declarations by sovereign states. The UNFCCC excludes that amendments become binding on Parties without their consent. See: Sands (2003), pp. 261 ff.

Treviranus (1992), p. 1097.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 1098.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2013), http://​unfccc.​int/​essential_​background/​items/​6031.​php.

In its advisory opinion, the ICJ held that future generations do not explicitly hold rights themselves; however, the court did recognize that future generations are a factor in the interpretation of international environmental law. See: Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion), ICJ Reports 1996, p. 226 at pp. 243–244 para. 35.

On this notion, see: Verheyen (2005), pp. 56–58.

http://​www.​merriam-webster.​com/​dictionary/​would.

Schröder (2002), p. 257.

Ibid.

For further reading on the INC negotiations, see: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2013), http://​unfccc.​int/​essential_​background/​items/​6031.​php.

Verheyen (2005), p. 71.

However, the text of the Convention does at no point determine the main responsibility for climate change to be located at the industrialized countries. India made such a proposal: ‘Noting the fact that the largest part of the current emissions of pollutants into the environment originates in developed countries, and recognizing therefore that these countries have the main responsibility for combating such pollution.’ See: India’s submission in: Set of informal papers related to the preparation of a framework convention on climate change, UN Doc. A/AC.237/Misc.1/Add.3, 3.

Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration States: ‘National authorities should endeavor to promote the internationalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interests and without distorting international trade and interest.’

Beyerlin, Marauhn (2011), p. 61.

On this notion see: Verheyen (2005), p. 73.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 71.

Doabia (2005), p. 474.

Ibid.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 218.

E.g., § 5 I No. 2 German Federal Emission Control Act.

Article VII, XV (ii), XVI (I) of the 1987 Ministerial Declaration of the Second North Sea Conference; Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration; Para. 17.21 of Agenda 21; United Nations General Assembly Resolution 44/225 of 22 December 1989 and 46/215 of 20 December 1991. Ministerial Declaration on the Protection of the Black Sea (1993); article 7.5 FAO Code of Conduct of Responsible Fisheries (1995), Sintra Statement of the Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR Commission on 22–23 July 1998.

Article III (1)(b) 1952 North Pacific Fisheries Convention; article V Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980; International Whaling Commission 1982; Preamble of the Vienna Convention 1985; article 4 (3), 4 Antarctic Mineral Resources Convention 1988; article 4 Bamako Convention 1991; article 2 (5)(a) ECE Transboundary Watercourse Convention 1992; article 2 (2)(a) OSPAR Convention 1992; article 3 (2) Baltic Sea Convention 1992; article 4.1 (f) Climate Change Convention 1992; article 174 (2) of the Treaty Establishing the European Community (consolidated version) 1992; Convention on the Conservation and Management of the Pollock Resources in the central Bering Sea 1994; article 6 UN Fish Stocks Agreement 1995; article 3 (1) Protocol to the 1972 London Convention 1996; Preamble EC Council Directive 96/61 of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control.

Sands (2003), p. 213.

Haritz (2011), p. 20.

Marr (2000), p. 261.

The MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 December 2001, ITLOS No. 10, Separate Opinion of Judge Wolfrum, p. 4.

Haritz (2011), p. 25.

Ibid., p. 23.

The analysis will cover the problem of states being possibly overburdened to provide sufficient adaptation measures to combat climate change aftermath in Chap. 6.

Haritz (2011), p. 20.

See the WCED Report ‘Our Common Future’ 1987.

Sands (2003), pp. 100ff; Adams (2003), p. 77.

Shelton (2007), p. 642.

See: UN Declaration on the right to development, GA Resolution 41/128 UN Doc. A/41/53.

Bodansky (1993), pp. 451 ff.

On this notion, see: Verheyen (2005), p. 78.

See: Voigt (2008), pp. 1–22; Verheyen (2005), pp. 80, 81.

Voigt (2008), pp. 6, 7; Verheyen (2005), pp. 80–84.

In approval of this view, see: Tomuschat (2011), pp. 18, 19.

During the negotiations, the EU and a number of developing countries, especially AOSIS countries, strongly supported the inclusion of binding ‘targets and timetables.’ See: Summary in Compilation of possible elements for a Framework Convention on Climate Change. Note by the secretariat. UN Doc. A/AC.237/Misc.2, pp. 27 ff.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 16 September 1987.

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 13 November 1979.

Verheyen (2005), pp. 44–54.

Sands (2003), p. 359.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 585.

Ibid., p. 588.

Verheyen (2005), p. 81.

Sands (2003), p. 371.

Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol lists the following gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, per fluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride.

E.g., reduction of emission allowances in the next commitment period. Targets are listed in article 3 Kyoto Protocol.

UNFCCC (2008), p. 38.

Tomuschat (2011), pp. 19, 20.

The quantified emission limitation or reduction commitment for each country party is set out in Annex B to the Kyoto Protocol.

UNFCCC (2008), p. 12.

Ibid., p. 19.

Kyoto deal loses four big nations, Sydney Morning Herald (29 May 2011), http://​www.​smh.​com.​au/​environment/​climate-change/​kyoto-deal-loses-four-big-nations-20110528–1f9dk.​html.

http://​unfccc.​int/​kyoto_​protocol/​status_​of_​ratification/​items/​2613.​php.

http://​unfccc.​int/​parties_​and_​observers/​parties/​non_​annex_​i/​items/​2833.​php.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 20.

See generally: Verheyen (2005); Voigt (2008), pp. 5–7; Tol and Verheyen (2004), pp. 1114–1116.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 20.

Vitzthum (2010), p. 27.

Quirin (2012), http://​www.​nature.​com/​news/​the-kyoto-protocol-hot-air-1.​11882.

http://​unfccc.​int/​bodies/​items/​6241.​php. For further reading on the COP-meetings see: Sands et al. (2012), pp. 294 ff.

http://​unfccc.​int/​bodies/​items/​6241.​php.

Cordes-Holland (2012), p. 299. For further information, see: http://​unfccc.​int/​meetings/​bali_​dec_​2007/​meeting/​6319.​php.

Beyerlin and Marauhn (2011), p. 29.

Conference of the Parties (2009), p. 4.

http://​unfccc.​int/​meetings/​cancun_​nov_​2010/​meeting/​6266.​php.

http://​unfccc.​int/​meetings/​durban_​nov_​2011/​meeting/​6245.​php.

‘In a communication dated 8 December 2010 that was received by the secretariat on 9 December 2010, the Russian Federation has indicated that it does not intend to assume a quantitative emission limitation or reduction commitment for the second commitment period.’ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2011), http://​unfccc.​int/​files/​meetings/​durban_​nov_​2011/​decisions/​application/​pdf/​awgkp_​outcome.​pdf.

Canada withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol on 15 December 2012, see: http://​unfccc.​int/​kyoto_​protocol/​status_​of_​ratification/​items/​2613.​php.

‘In a communication dated 10 December 2010, Japan indicated that it does not have any intention to be under obligation of the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol after 2012.’ http://​unfccc.​int/​files/​meetings/​durban_​nov_​2011/​decisions/​application/​pdf/​awgkp_​outcome.​pdf.

Agence France-Presse, Kyoto deal loses four big nations, Sydney Morning Herald (29 May 2011), http://​www.​smh.​com.​au/​environment/​climate-change/​kyoto-deal-loses-four-big-nations-20110528–1f9dk.​html.

For a chronology on ‘loss and damage’ with regard to the climate change talks, see: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2015), https://​unfccc.​int/​adaptation/​workstreams/​loss_​and_​damage/​items/​7545.​php.

Conference of the Parties Decision 3/CP.18 (2013), http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2012/​cop18/​eng/​08a01.​pdf#page=​21, approaches to address loss and damage associated with climate change impacts in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change to enhance adaptive capacity.

Decision 2/CP.19 (2014), see: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2013/​cop19/​eng/​10a01.​pdf.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014a), https://​unfccc.​int/​adaptation/​workstreams/​loss_​and_​damage/​items/​8134.​php.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014b), https://​unfccc.​int/​adaptation/​workstreams/​loss_​and_​damage/​items/​8132.​php.

For background on the debate during the conference, see: http://​www.​bbc.​com/​news/​science-environment-20653018.

UNECE (2010), p. 3.

http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​lrtap_​h1.​html.

UNECE (2010), p. 3.

Ibid., p.15.

Shaw (2008), p. 873.

For the texts of the protocols, see: http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​status/​lrtap_​s.​html.

The 1984 Geneva Protocol on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe.

The 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 %.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (1985), http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​sulf_​h1.​html.

The 1988 Sofia Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes.

The 1991 Geneva Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes.

The 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (1994), http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​fsulf_​h1.​html.

The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals.

The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).

http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​welcome.​html.

The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone.

http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​welcome.​html.

Reis et al. (2012), p. 1153.

See, for instance, here: http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​executivebody/​eb_​decision.​html.

Sanctions like the suspension of certain rights, privileges, or financial assistance in cases of noncompliance with international environmental law can be found in, e.g., CITES or the Montreal Protocol (trade restrictions). For compliance of the member states, see the 15th Report of the Implementation Committee, see: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2008), http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​eia/​implementation/​implementation_​committee_​meetings15.​html.

For the outcome of the processes, see: http://​www.​unece.​org/​env/​lrtap/​executivebody/​eb_​decision.​html.

Reis et al. (2012), p. 1153.

Canada v. United States: A zinc and lead smelter in the town of Trail, British Columbia, not far from the U.S. border, emitted sulfurous smoke that drifted southward down the Columbia River valley and caused damage to crops and trees on the U.S. side of the border. From the beginning of its operations in 1896, American farmers suffered damage due to emissions of sulfur dioxide by the plant. In 1903, the record year, these emissions exceeded 10,000 tons a month. In 1930, 300 to 350 tons of sulfur, in addition to other chemical residues, poured into the air. Initially, the smelter company paid indemnities to those suffering from the pollution, either following American court procedures or as a result of bilateral accords. In 1925, the case was reopened after the smelter added two 409-foot stacks to the plant to increase production, resulting in greater pollution. An association of injured persons was formed in order to obtain general damages in the place of individual recoveries. Compensation was awarded for some of the damage claimed by the United States, and some changes were made in order to keep harmful emissions caused by the operation of the plant below an acceptable threshold. See: Gilpin (2000), p. 319; Kiss and Shelton (2004), pp. 182–188. For a summary of the case, see also: Gaines (1989), pp. 337–339.

Handl (2007), p. 533.

Ibid., p. 532.

Ibid., p. 533.

Sands et al. (2012), pp. 195, 196.

Ibid., p. 195.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 182.

Ibid., p. 79.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1013.

Ibid.

Trail Smelter (U.S. v. Can.), 3 R. Int.l Arb. Awards 1907, 1965; Eagleton (1928).

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 184.

Ibid.

Ibid., pp. 184–185.

Ibid., p. 185.

Shaw (2008), p. 857.

Cassese (2005), p. 484.

For the discussion on ‘clear and convincing evidence’ with regard to the Trail Smelter case, see: Frank (2014), pp. 3, 4.

Frank (2014), p. 4.

International Law Commission (2001b).

Sands and Galizzi (2004), p. 24.

Sands (2003), p. 902.

For further reading on this matter see: Handl (2007), p. 540.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1022.

International Law Commission (2001a), p. 150.

Higgins (2003), p. 165.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1022. See also: Tomuschat (2011), pp. 23–25.

See, e.g., Boyle (1990), pp. 1–26.

Ibid.

Sands (2003), p. 902.

Gaines (1990–1991), pp. 807–808.

Voigt (2008), p. 9.

Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 July 2006, ICJ Reports 2006, p. 113 at para. 101.

Voigt (2008), p. 10.

International Law Commission (2001b), p. 155.

Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Provisional Measures, Order of 13 July 2006, ICJ Reports 2006, p. 113 at para. 101.

International Law Commission (2001b), p. 154.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 714.

International Law Commission (2001b), p. 154.

Ibid., p. 155.

Ibid., p. 156.

Ibid., p. 154. See also: Voigt (2008), pp. 10–12.

International Law Commission (2001b), p. 153.

Ibid., p. 155.

Ibid., p. 153.

This is line with the argumentation of the ICJ in the Corfu Channel case. The ICJ did not require from Albania to have specific knowledge on the ships going through the passage. Rather, the knowledge that ships may enter the territory concerned was satisfying to attribute the damage to Albania. See: Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, p. 4.

IPCC AR4, WGII 2007.

UNFCCC, Preamble.

The term is used here in a sense different from the connotation it has in the work of Rawls 1971, p. 136.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 26.

Voigt (2008), p. 12.

Ibid., p. 14.

International Law Commission (2001a), p. 159.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 191.

See: Birnie et al. (2009), p. 217.

Sands et al. (2012), pp. 201, 202.

Gaines (1989), p. 316.

General Commentary, ILC Report, UN Doc. A/61/10, p. 113.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 24.

General Commentary, ILC Report, UN Doc. A/61/10, p. 113.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 25.

UN Doc. A/61/10; ILC Draft Principles on the Allocation of Loss in the Case of Transboundary Harm Arising out of Transboundary Activities Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, commentary to principle 2 (2).

Ibid.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), pp. 212, 213.

Gilpin (2000), p. 246.

Gaines (1991), p. 492.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 16.

On this notion, see: Gaines (1991), pp. 492, 493.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 17.

Ibid., pp. 17, 18.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 42.

Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada), 1938, 1941, 3 RIAA 1907 (1941), p. 4.

Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, 4.

Lac Lanoux arbitration (France v. Spain), 24 Int’l L. Rep. 101 1957.

Shaw (2008), pp. 785, 786.

See: United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Teheran, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1980, p. 3 at p. 29; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986, p. 14 at p. 64.

In some cases, the concept has been consulted determining questions of equity (e.g., Lena Goldfields Arbitration, The Times, Sept. 3, 1930, p. 7); in other cases, the concept was cited as a limitation to damages rewarded (e.g., George W. Cook (USA) v. United Mexican States, RIAA, Vol. 4, p. 217); see: Schreuer (2000), p. 1243.

Schreuer (2000), pp. 1243, 1244.

For a thorough introduction on the different ideas of what ‘unjust enrichment’ stands for in the municipal systems, see: Schreuer (1974), pp. 281–301.

Schreuer (2000), p. 1244.

Crawford (2002), p. 125.

Schreuer (2000), p. 1243.

Ibid., p. 1244.

Ibid.

Schreuer (1974), p. 285.

Schreuer (2000), p. 1243.

For a more detailed insight on this notion, see: Weinbaum (2011), pp. 429–454.

Schreuer (2000), p. 1243.

Definition of ‘Enrichment’ according to Merriam Webster, see: http://​www.​merriam-webster.​com/​dictionary/​enrichment.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, AR4 2008.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, AR4/WG2 2008, p. 17.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, AR4/WG2 2008, p. 14.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, AR4/WG2 2008, p. 56.

http://​dictionary.​law.​com/​Default.​aspx?​selected=​2197.

Schreuer (2000), p. 1245.

Recommendation of the Council on Principles concerning Transfrontier Pollution, Paris 14 November 1974, [OECD doc. C(74)224].

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 195.

Ibid.

E.g., Nordic Mutual Emergency Assistance Agreement in Connection with Radiation Accidents, Vienna 17 October 1963, in force 19 June 1964 [525 UNTS 75]; International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, Brussels 29 Nov 1969, in force 6 May 1975 [970 UNTS 211]; Agreement for Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil and other Harmful Substances, Bonn 13 September 1983, in force 1 September 1989.

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, Vienna 26 Sep 1986, in force 26 Feb 1987 [1457 UNTS 133; [1987] ATS 15; 25 ILM 1377 (1986)].

Kiss and Shelton (2004), pp. 196, 197.

For further reading on UNCLOS, see: Sands and Galizzi (2004), pp. 294 ff.

Principle 22 and Principle 7 adopted by United Nations Conference on the Human Environment have been major influences to article 253, UNCLOS. See: Nordquist et al. (1991b), p. 401. Principle 22 of the Stockholm Declaration states: ‘States shall co-operate to develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their jurisdiction.’ Principle 7 of the Stockholm Declaration states: ‘States should discharge, in accordance with the principles of international law, their obligations towards other States where damage arises from pollution caused by their own activities or by organizations or individuals under their jurisdiction and should co-operate in developing procedures for dealing with such damage and the settlement of disputes.’

Sands and Galizzi (2004), p. 294.

Sands and Galizzi (2004), pp. 295, 296.

The University of New South Wales Climate Change Research Centre (2009), pp. 7, 23.

Nordquist et al. (1991a), p. 517.

Sands and Galizzi (2004), p. 294.

Churchhill and Lowe (1999), pp. 160, 161.

Tol and Verheyen (2004), p. 1116.

Vitzthum (2006), p. 228.

Oppenheim (1992), p. 717. The EEZ is roughly put, determined by drawing a line around land territories (baselines). See: Vitzthum (2006), pp. 230, 231.

Nordquist et al. (1991b), pp. 401, 402.

Ibid. p. 402.

Sands (2003), pp. 454, 455.

Tol and Verheyen (2004), p. 1114.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 142.

http://​conventions.​coe.​int/​Treaty/​Commun/​ChercheSig.​asp?​NT=​150&​CM=​3&​DF=​&​CL=​ENG.

http://​conventions.​coe.​int/​Treaty/​en/​Summaries/​Html/​150.​htm.

Especially during the negotiations regarding the climate regime, developing countries were pressing for an incorporation of the Polluter-Pays-Principle (see Sect. 4.6.4).

On the lack of ratification, see: Louka (2006), p. 467.

Gilpin (2000), p. 15.

Kiss and Shelton (2004), p. 141.

See: Article 31 ILC-DASR.

Gaines (1990–1991), p. 782.