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Erschienen in:
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2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

4. Civil Aviation Security

verfasst von : Olga Mironenko Enerstvedt

Erschienen in: Aviation Security, Privacy, Data Protection and Other Human Rights: Technologies and Legal Principles

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

As mentioned in Chap. 1, in the aviation security vs. privacy debate, aviation security interests should be better understood and evaluated. This is the reason for the fairly detailed analysis of civil aviation security in this research.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Other Human Rights in Aviation Security
Nächstes Kapitel Legal Principles of Privacy and Data Protection
Fußnoten
1
Lyon. Airports as data filters: converging surveillance systems after September 11th. In: Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society. Vol. 1 (2003a) pp. 13–20.
 
2
A more detailed overview of the history is available in many books and articles, e.g. Price. Practical aviation security: predicting and preventing future threats (2013).
 
3
European Aviation Safety Agency. EASA Annual Safety Review 2010.
 
4
Brignell. Number watch. The Risks of Travel (2011) http://​www.​numberwatch.​co.​uk/​risks_​of_​travel.​htm
 
5
§ 1.3 of ICAO Doc 9735, Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme Continuous Monitoring Manual, Third Edition, 2011.
 
8
Chapter 1. Definitions.
 
9
Article 3 of Regulation (EC) 300/2008.
 
10
Air Code of 19 March 1997 N 60-FZ, Article 83. Translation into English by Garant database on Russian legislation (garant.ru).
 
11
Nielsen. Aviation security: legal framework and technical management. In: International Journal of Private Law. Vol. 1 (2008) p. 82.
 
12
Bjørnskau [et al.] Transport Security and the Protection of Privacy. TØI report 914/2007 (2007) p. VIII.
 
13
IATA. First Meeting of the RASG-MID Steering Committee (RSC/1) (Cairo, Egypt, 18–20 June 2012)
 
14
Everitt. Safety and Security in Aviation – The Dividing Line is Blurred (2000).
 
15
See, e.g. Russian Federal law of 28 December 2010 N 390-FZ On security, Art. 1.
 
17
IATA. New Year’s Day 2014 marks 100 Years of Commercial Aviation. http://​www.​iata.​org/​pressroom/​pr/​Pages/​2013-12-30-01.​aspx
 
18
Materials from Wikipedia.
 
19
Steiner. Aircraft evolution and airline growth. In: Financial Analysts Journal (1967) p. 85.
 
20
COPRA (2013).
 
21
Airlines International, Special Report – Something Completely Different. 1 February 2011. http://​airlines.​iata.​org/​reports/​special-report-something-completely-different
 
22
Macário [et al.] The consequences of the growing European low-cost airline sector (2007) p. 41.
 
25
Ibid.
 
26
Sweet Aviation and airport security (2004) p. 17.
 
27
IATA Press Release, 16 Oct 2014.
 
29
IATA Statement. CAA’s proposals do not address Heathrow cost issues, 30 April 2013.
 
31
Price (2013) p. 2.
 
32
Bordunov (2007) p. 32.
 
33
Sweet (2004) p. 6.
 
34
Airlines International, Special Report – Growing Up. 1 April 2011. http://​airlines.​iata.​org/​reports/​special-report-growing-up
 
35
COPRA (2013).
 
36
Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation.
 
37
Ibid.
 
38
ASN- Standards used on aviation-safety.​net
 
39
Ibid.
 
40
Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation.
 
41
Chapter 1 of Annex 17 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Security – Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference. Ninth edition, March 2011 (Annex 17).
 
42
Sweet (2004) p. 20.
 
43
Schneier (2008) p. vii.
 
44
Institute for Economics and Peace. Global Peace Index 2015, 2015.
 
45
Gasser. Acts of terror, “terrorism” and international humanitarian law. In: International Review – Red Cross. Vol. 84 (2002). pp. 550–551.
 
46
Article 1 of Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism (2002/475/JHA).
 
47
These terms will be elaborated below.
 
48
See further Sect. 4.5.4 – Threats.
 
49
The overview of historical developments will be given below.
 
50
For more details, see COPRA (2013).
 
52
Security Director News. Global airport security expenditures expected to reach $45B by 2018. 23 April 2012.
 
53
Trembaczowski-Ryder. The Economics of Security (2010). Conference Transport Security Expo, London, September 2010.
 
54
European Commission. Impact assessment on the possible use of security scanners at EU airports of 23 March 2011, §38.
 
55
Israelsen. Applying the Fourth Amendment’s National-Security Exception to Airport Security and the TSA. In: J. Air L. & Com. Vol. 78 (2013) p. 47.
 
56
Sarkar. The president’s 2016 budget request: Transportation Security Administration, 6 February 2015, http://​www.​fiercegovernment​it.​com/​story/​presidents-2016-budget-request-transportation-security-administration/​2015-02-06
 
57
Miller. Demand for security equipment projected to rise 7 percent a year through 2016, Security Systems News, 20 May 2013, http://​www.​securitysystemsn​ews.​com/​article/​demand-security-equipment-projected-rise-7-percent-year-through-2016
 
58
Security Director News. Global airport security expenditures expected to reach $45B by 2018. 23 April 2012.
 
59
Aviation Security against Terrorist Threats – Conclusions of the conference of 31 October 2012, Nicosia, Cyprus. http://​www.​statewatch.​org/​news/​2013/​jan/​eu-council-nicosia-aviation-security-16252-12.​pdf
 
60
Ibid.
 
62
Chertok. Aviation Security. Aviation Security International Conference, St. Petersburg, 2010. http://​global-port.​ru/​ru/​avia2010articles​
 
63
The TSA’s Administrator John Pistol’s statement to the US House of Representatives’ Committee on Homeland Security, 7 Feb 2012.
 
64
Askew. We need leadership from our leaders. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015) p. 12
 
65
See, e.g. Europol’s EU 2012 Terrorism Situation and Trend (TESAT) report.
 
66
Wilkinson and Jenkins. Aviation terrorism and security (1999) p. 156.
 
67
Salter. Imagining numbers: Risk, quantification, and aviation security. In: Security dialogue. Vol. 39 (2008) p. 246.
 
68
See, for example, Guinness World Records, First hijack of an aircraft, http://​www.​guinnessworldrec​ords.​com/​world-records/​first-hijack-of-an-aircraft/​
 
69
Martin. Air Piracy and Terrorism Directed against US Air Carriers (1993) p. 2.
 
70
Bordunov (2007) p. 36.
 
71
Price (2013) p. 45.
 
72
Hainmüller. Why do Europeans fly safer? The politics of airport security in Europe and the US. In: Terrorism and Political Violence. Vol. 15 (2003) p. 9.
 
73
Jenkins. Defense against terrorism. In: Political Science Quarterly. Vol. 101 (1986) p. 774.
 
74
Hoffman. Terrorism trends and prospects. In: Countering the new terrorism (1999) p. 16.
 
75
Holden. The contagiousness of aircraft hijacking. In: The American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 91 (1986) p. 874.
 
76
Poole. Toward risk-based aviation security policy (2008) p. 7.
 
77
The first successful hijacking occurred on 15 October 1970, when Aeroflot flight 244 was hijacked to Turkey by father and son Brazinskas, killing a flight attendant and injuring three crew members. Later, the hijackers received American citizenship. Hijackings in the USSR up to 1973. http://​hijacking.​far.​ru/​2.​html
 
79
Ibid.
 
80
Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR of 3 January 1973. Bulletin of the Supreme Council of the USSR, 1973, N 1, art.3.
 
81
Waldren. Armed Police, The Police Use of Firearms since 1945 (2007) p. 224.
 
82
For more details, see Hoofnagle. Airport Searches In: Encyclopedia of American civil liberties (2006).
 
83
Wolff. Screening technologies: an A to Z. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015) p. 22.
 
85
Manning. United States’ Response to International Air Safety, The. In: J. Air L. & Com. Vol. 61 (1995) p. 526.
 
86
Rumerman. Aviation security. In: Essays on the History of Flight (2003).
 
87
Dempsey. Aviation Security: The Role of Law in the War Against Terrorism. In: Columbia journal of transnational law. Vol. 41 (2003) p. 698.
 
88
Poole (2008) pp. 9–10.
 
89
See. e.g. Clarke. Profiling: A hidden challenge to the regulation of data surveillance. In: JL & Inf. Sci. Vol. 4 (1993); Turn Information privacy issues for the 1990s (1990); Bennett. Computers, personal data, and theories of technology: Comparative approaches to privacy protection in the 1990s. In: Science, Technology & Human Values. Vol. 16 (1991) etc.
 
90
See, e.g. Robinson. 9/11: Threats About Airplanes As Weapons Prior To 9/11 (2011).
 
91
Wilkinson and Jenkins (1999) p. 159.
 
92
Thompson. The terror timeline: year by year, day by day, minute by minute: a comprehensive chronicle of the road to 9/11—and America’s response (2004).
 
93
Institute for Economics and Peace. Global Terrorism Index 2012, 2012.; La Free. Countering Myths about Terrorism. In: 38th Annual Theodore Standing Lecture, SUNY-Albany (2008).
 
94
Materials from Wikipedia.
 
95
Whether institutions or individuals other than the perpetrators had foreknowledge of the 11 attacks and should have taken action to try to prevent them.
 
96
Acharya. The Adequacy of Aviation Security Laws and Airport Security. In: Central European Journal of International & Security Studies. Vol. 2 (2008) p. 107.
 
97
Avihai (2006).
 
98
Wilkinson and Jenkins (1999) p. 159.
 
99
Abeyratne Aviation Security Law (2010) pp. 3–4.
 
100
Karber. Re-constructing global aviation in an era of the civil aircraft as a weapon of destruction. In: Harv. JL & Pub. Pol’y. Vol. 25 (2001). p. 794.
 
101
The US Travel Association. A Better Way: Building a World-Class System for Aviation Security, 5 May 2011. https://​www.​ustravel.​org/​research/​better-way-building-world-class-system-aviation-security
 
102
Professional Pilots. Cabin cameras set to keep watch in airliners. 6 April 2002. http://​www.​pprune.​org/​rumours-news/​49363-cabin-cameras-set-keep-watch-airliners.​html
 
103
Jenkins. A primer on airport security. In: Governance and Public Security New York: Campbell Public Affairs Institute (2002) p. 70.
 
104
Laing. Air Travel and Omnipresent Disaster (2008) p. 707.
 
105
See more detail in Sect. 6.​4.​4 – Profiling.
 
106
Soboleva. Domodedovo promises to become the safest airport in Russia in the nearest future. Finam.ru, 23 August 2005. http://​www.​finam.​ru/​analysis/​newsitem149A3006​40/​default.​asp
 
107
Federal law of 9 February 2007 N 16-FZ On transport security.
 
108
Article 7(3) of Federal law of 6 March 2006 N 35-FZ On counteraction against terrorism.
 
109
Walker. Clamping down on terrorism in the United Kingdom. In: Journal of International Criminal Justice. Vol. 4 (2006) p. 5.
 
110
On 29 June 2007, in London, two car bombs were discovered and disabled before they could be detonated. The Glasgow International Airport attack, also using cars, occurred on 30 June 2007 and was substantially unsuccessful.
 
111
Interfax. Moscow airports strengthen inspection on departure and arrival after terrorist attacks in Paris. 14 Nov 2015. http://​www.​interfax.​ru/​moscow/​479279
 
112
Markon. Homeland Security plans to expand pre-clearance program at foreign airports. Washingtonpost, 13 November 2015.
 
113
Hope. Britain to hire 2000 new spies at MI5, MI6 and GCHQ in wake of the Paris terror attacks, The Telegraph, 16 Nov 2015, http://​www.​telegraph.​co.​uk/​news/​uknews/​terrorism-in-the-uk/​11997782/​Paris-terror-attack-Britain-to-hire-2000-new-spies.​html
 
114
See, e.g. Annex 17, § 3.1.3; European Civil Aviation Conference. ECAC Aviation Security Handbook (restricted), 2014.
 
115
Stewart and Mueller. A risk and cost-benefit assessment of United States aviation security measures. In: Journal of Transportation Security. Vol. 1 (2008) p. 145.
 
116
Tamasi. Risk assessment techniques for civil aviation security. In: Reliability Engineering & System Safety. Vol. 96 (2011) p. 893.
 
117
Sage and White. Methodologies for risk and hazard assessment: a survey and status report. In: Systems, Man and Cybernetics, IEEE Transactions on. Vol. 10 (1980) p. 426.
 
118
COPRA (2013).
 
119
Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
120
Ferguson The ascent of money: A financial history of the world (2008) p. 188.
 
121
Alexander and Sochor. Aerial piracy and aviation security (1990) p. 21.
 
122
COPRA (2013).
 
123
Janic. An assessment of risk and safety in civil aviation. In: Journal of Air Transport Management. Vol. 6 (2000) p. 44.
 
124
A threat assessment identifies and evaluates threats based on various factors, including capability and intentions as well as the potential lethality of an attack. Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
125
A vulnerability assessment is a process that identifies weaknesses that may be exploited by terrorists and suggests options to eliminate or mitigate those weaknesses. Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
126
A criticality assessment is a process designed to systematically identify and evaluate an organization’s assets based on their values, the importance of its mission or function, the group of people at risk, or the significance of a structure. Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
127
Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
128
Poole (2008) pp. 13–14.
 
129
Tamasi (2011) p. 893.
 
130
Atkins. Online terrorism: Is the cyber threat real? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012). p. 36.
 
131
Bradley. Airports Build a Case for Biometrics, Aviationpros, 1 July 2015, http://​www.​aviationpros.​com/​article/​12082409/​airports-build-a-case-for-biometrics
 
132
See Chap. 6.
 
133
Transportation Security Administration Recommended Security Guidelines for Airport Planning, Design and Construction (2011) p. 124.
 
134
See, e.g., Cmt-VC Company. Video surveillance systems. http://​www.​smt-vc.​ru/​catalog/​sistemy-videonablyudeniy​a/​
 
135
Ericson. Ten uncertainties of risk-management approaches to security. In: Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice/La Revue canadienne de criminologie et de justice pénale. Vol. 48 (2006).
 
136
Stewart and Mueller (2008) p. 145.
 
137
Amicelli (2012a) p. 3.
 
138
Wolff. Are We Ignoring the “Risk” in Risk Based Screening? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) pp. 4–5.
 
139
Schneier (2008) p. 77.
 
140
Salter (2008) pp. 246–248.
 
141
Rose [et al.] Governmentality. In: Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci. Vol. 2 (2006) p. 96.
 
142
Salter (2008) p. 248.
 
143
Schneier. Beyond fear: Thinking sensibly about security in an uncertain world (2003) pp. 14–15.
 
144
Lyon (2004) p. 137 and Salter (2008) p. 262.
 
145
Crockatt. Airport infrastructure as an instrument for regional economic development (2000). pp. 66–67.
 
146
COPRA (2013).
 
147
Ibid.
 
149
Alexander and Sochor (1990) p. 21.
 
150
Schneier (2008) p. 2.
 
151
Manning (1995) p. 508.
 
152
Harrison. International aviation and terrorism (2009) p. 49.
 
153
Salter (2008) p. 246.
 
154
Cf. theatre hostage crisis in Moscow, 2002; school tragedy in Beslan, 2004; youth camp in Norway, 2011; Boston Marathon, 2012; Volgograd bus, 2013; different metro, cars and train attacks.
 
155
Jenkins. Aviation Security: After Four Decades, It’s Time for a Fundamental Review (2012) p. 1 giving statistics from the Mineta Transportation Institute’s database of attacks on transportation targets.
 
156
For instance, European airlines complain about different security costs in comparison with other transport modes.
 
157
Sweet (2004) p. 15.
 
158
Jenkins (1986) p. 778.
 
159
Airbus A321, 31 October 2015.
 
160
Tønnessen. Terrorisme mot luftfarten. Foredrag NFFs Ledersamling. Forsvarets forskningsinstitutt (FFI). 3 Feb 2011. http://​nholt.​no/​getfile.​php/​Filer/​pdf/​NFF_​Luftfart_​FFI.​pdf
 
161
See Abeyratne (2010) p. 16 and COPRA (2013).
 
162
Information of National Antiterrorist Committee. Countering terrorism in the Russian Federation and personal security of citizens. 13 May 2013.
 
163
Cochrane. Dispersal: A means of infiltrating bomb onto aircraft. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012). p. 39.
 
164
See Sect. 2.​2.​2.​3.
 
165
Atkins (2012) pp. 34–35.
 
166
Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f(d).
 
167
Institute for Economics and Peace (2015).
 
168
Europol’s EU 2012 Terrorism Situation and Trend (TESAT) report.
 
169
Hoffman (1999) pp. 38–39.
 
170
Cochrane (2012) p. 39.
 
171
Ibid.
 
172
Europol’s EU 2012 Terrorism Situation and Trend (TESAT) report.
 
173
Naudin. A personal view. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 20 (2014) p. 44.
 
174
E.g. numerous terrorist acts in Volgograd, Russia, December 2013.
 
175
For overview, see Baum. Metrojet Flight KGL9268. ASI Special Report (2015b) http://​www.​asi-mag.​com/​metrojet-flight-kgl9268-a-special-report/​
 
176
Baum. Germanwings 9525: the challenge of suicidal pilots behind intrusion-proof cockpit doors. ASI Special Report on Germanwings Flight 9525 (2015a).
 
177
Tønnessen (2011).
 
178
HM Government. CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism. July 2011. §1.06.
 
179
Tamasi (2011) pp. 893–894.
 
180
Ericson. Catastrophe risk, insurance and terrorism. In: Economy and Society. Vol. 33 (2004).
 
181
Stewart and Mueller (2008) p. 145.
 
182
Wilkinson and Jenkins (1999) p. 148.
 
183
GTI is an attempt to systematically rank the nations of the world according to terrorist activity.
 
184
Institute for Economics and Peace (2012).
 
185
Institute for Economics and Peace. Global Terrorism Index 2014, 2014.
 
186
Wilkinson and Jenkins (1999) p. 148.
 
187
Naudin (2014) p. 44.
 
188
Topping. Theresa May claims 40 terror plots have been foiled since 7/7 attacks, The Guardian, 24 Nov 2014, http://​www.​theguardian.​com/​politics/​2014/​nov/​24/​theresa-may-london-attacks-40-terror-plots-foiled
 
189
Omand. The terrorist threat to the UK in the post–9/11 decade. In: Journal of Terrorism Research. Vol. 3 (2012) p. 8.
 
190
HM Government. CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism. July 2011.
 
191
Institute for Economics and Peace (2014).
 
192
The UK Department for Transport. Better regulation for aviation security. Consultation document. July 2011.
 
193
Foundation for Information Policy Research, Technology development and its effect on privacy & law enforcement, February 2004; House of Lords, Constitution Committee – Second Report. Surveillance: Citizens and the State, 2009.
 
194
Institute for Economics and Peace (2012).
 
195
Institute for Economics and Peace (2014).
 
196
For more details, see Fimreite [et al.] After Oslo and Utøya: A shift in the balance between security and liberty in Norway? In: Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Vol. 36 (2013).
 
197
Institute for Economics and Peace (2014).
 
198
The Guardian. Norway will not be intimidated by terror attacks, vows prime minister. 27 July 2011, http://​www.​theguardian.​com/​world/​2011/​jul/​27/​norway-terror-attacks-prime-minister
 
200
USA Department of State. Country Reports on Terrorism 2012 – Norway. 30 May 2013. http://​www.​refworld.​org/​docid/​51a86e7918.​html
 
201
Baum (2015a).
 
202
Chapter 1 of Annex 17.
 
203
Baum (2015b).
 
204
See Chap. 5.
 
205
Ibid.
 
206
Stewart and Mueller (2008) p. 145.
 
207
Ibid. p. 144.
 
208
Ibid. p. 143.
 
209
Ibid.
 
210
Salter (2008) p. 258.
 
211
GAO Aviation Security: Improved Testing, Evaluation, and Performance Measurement Could Enhance Effectiveness (2015a).
 
212
Ibid.
 
213
Salter (2008) p. 258.
 
214
Neeman. Effectively screening people: Pat down searchers, wands, archways and portals. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 19 (2013) p. 15.
 
215
GAO (2015a).
 
216
Elias (2012) p. 9.
 
217
Miller (2013).
 
218
Aviaport Digest. Airports disclaim slow scanners. 17 February 2012, http://​www.​aviaport.​ru/​digest/​2012/​02/​17/​229881.​html
 
219
Vegh. Magnetic Resonance Technology: a replacement for existing airport screening system? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) p. 20.
 
220
Quinn. Man boards plane at IAH with loaded gun in carry-on, ABC News, 17 December 2010. http://​abc13.​com/​archive/​7848683/​
 
221
Houlis. Visibly efficient: the future of integrated CCTV (2010) http://​www.​ifsecglobal.​com/​visibly-efficient-the-future-of-integrated-cctv/​
 
222
Cochrane (2012) p. 41.
 
223
Naudin (2014) p. 44.
 
224
Jenkins (2002) p. 69.
 
225
Six men boarded in a Tianjin Airlines flight and, pretending to be disabled and hiding weapons in their crutches, tried to hijack the aircraft. See: Baum. Terror in Bulgaria, Hijacking in Xinjiang: concern in Reykjavik, but joy in London. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012b) p. 1.
 
226
AbcNews. TSA Agent Gets Past Newark Airport Security With Hidden Fake Bomb, 8 March 2013, http://​abcnews.​go.​com/​blogs/​headlines/​2013/​03/​tsa-agent-gets-past-two-security-layers-with-hidden-fake-bomb/​
 
227
Baum (2015b).
 
228
Waldron. Security and Liberty: The Image of Balance. In: Journal of Political Philosophy. Vol. 11 (2003) p. 210.
 
229
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2014a).
 
231
COPRA (2013).
 
232
Ibid.
 
233
Neeman (2013) p. 12.
 
234
Ibid.
 
235
Chapter 5; Sect. 4.5 and Chap. 5; Chap. 3 respectively.
 
236
Bordunov (2007) p. 39.
 
237
Ibid. p. 40.
 
238
E.g. if, instead of following the prescribed route, foreign aircraft follow a different route, this can be considered a violation of the principle of security of international civil aviation. A flight of a foreign aircraft without the permission of the sovereign state can be considered as invasion and violation of the principle of sovereignty over airspace.
 
239
Bordunov (2007) p. 39.
 
240
Ibid. p. 46.
 
241
Abeyratne (2010) p. 212.
 
242
See Chicago Convention Article 1 – Sovereignty and Article 2 – Territory.
 
243
Bordunov (2007) p. 40.
 
244
Territories which do not belong to a particular state have special, mainly international status (Antarctica etc.).
 
245
Some rules can be found in international conventions such as the Convention for the Unification of certain rules relating to international carriage by air (Warsaw Convention, 1929), Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface (Rome Convention, 1952), Tokyo Convention (1963), Hague Convention (1970), Montreal Convention (1971) discussed in Chap. 2.
 
246
E.g. Article 9 of Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism (2002/475/JHA) provides that Member States must establish jurisdiction over terrorist offences where the offence is committed on board a vessel flying its flag or an aircraft registered there, and other rules of jurisdiction issues.
 
247
E.g. Article 1 of Russian Air Code of 19 March 1997 N 60-FZ provides that 1.The Russian Federation shall enjoy a complete and an exclusive sovereignty with respect to the air space of the Russian Federation. 2. The air space of the Russian Federation is the air space over the territory of the Russian Federation, including the air space over the inland waters and over the territorial sea.
 
248
See Chicago Convention Article 2 – Territory, Article 12 on High Seas read in conjunction with Annexes 2, 6, 11, 12 of the Chicago Convention.
 
249
See more details: Osula. Transborder access and territorial sovereignty. In: Computer Law & Security Review (2015).
 
250
Bordunov (2007) p. 15.
 
251
COPRA (2013).
 
252
Brooks. A new approach for a new breed of threat? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015) p. 31.
 
253
Diederiks-Verschoor. An introduction to air law (2006) p. 4.
 
254
Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft of 14 September 1963.
 
255
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft of 16 December 1970.
 
256
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September 1971.
 
257
Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports serving International Civil Aviation of 24 February 1988 (Montreal Protocol).
 
258
Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection of 1 March 1991.
 
259
Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation of 10 September 2010 (Beijing Convention) and the 2010 Beijing Protocol to the 1971 Hague Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft.
 
260
Manning (1995) p. 514.
 
261
Chicago Convention, 7 December 1944, ICAO Doc 7300/6. The Convention is now in its ninth edition.
 
263
Benjamin ICAO and Civil Aviation Challenges (2009).
 
264
Abeyratne (2010) p. 210.
 
265
Bordunov (2007) p. 57.
 
266
Annex 17 p. (ix).
 
267
Bordunov (2007) p. 57.
 
268
Wilkinson and Jenkins (1999) p. 85.
 
269
Annex 17 p. (ix).
 
270
ICAO Document 9944 – Guidelines on Passenger Name Record (PNR) data of 2010.
 
271
Seventh edition, 2009.
 
272
Annex 17 p. (viii).
 
273
Ibid. § 2.1.4.
 
274
Harrison (2009) p. 29.
 
275
ACI Policy and Recommended Practices Handbook. Seventh edition. November 2009. Page i.
 
278
E.g. The Ministry of Transport of RF. The ICAO Commission completed the inspection on the organization and oversight of aviation security in the Russian Federation. 18 March 2011. http://​www.​mintrans.​ru/​news/​detail.​php?​ELEMENT_​ID=​15869&​phrase_​id=​1289896
 
279
Harrison (2009) p. 4.
 
280
Framework Regulation (EC) No 2320/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002.
 
281
Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 2008 on common rules in the field of civil aviation security.
 
282
Commission Regulation (EC) No 185/2010 laying down measures for the implementation of the common basic standards on aviation security.
 
283
Commission Regulation (EC) No 272/2009 supplementing the common basic standards on civil aviation security laid down in the Annex to Regulation (EC) No 300/2008.
 
284
The European Free Trade Organization was established in 1960 as a trade-bloc alternative for European countries who were unable or unwilling to join the, at the time, EEC, the predecessor of the contemporary EU.
 
285
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) is established by the ICAO and the Council of Europe. The main security instrument is Document 30 – ECAC policy statement in the field of aviation facilitation (11th Edition, December 2009). Similar to Annex 17, it establishes the foundations of an EU aviation security programme as well as minimum aviation security standards expected from all Member States.
 
286
Article 10.
 
287
Regulation No 300/2008 Article 6.
 
288
Commission Regulation (EU) No 185/2010, Chapter 12.8.
 
289
Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council 2010. Annual Report on the Implementation of Regulation (EC) No. 300/2008 on Common Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation Security/*Com/2011/0649 Final.
 
290
Poole (2008) p. 8.
 
291
European Parliament, Resolution on aviation security of 6 July 2011 (2010/2154(INI).
 
292
Harrison (2009) p. 4.
 
293
See e.g. Article 3 of Russian Air Code of 19 March 1997 N 60-FZ.
 
294
Bordunov (2007) p. 32.
 
295
Harrison (2009) p. 4.
 
296
Ibid.
 
298
Abeyratne (2010) p. 4.
 
299
§3.1.8.
 
300
§3.1.2.
 
301
§3.1.4.
 
302
§3.1.5.
 
303
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Central Intelligence Agency, and National Security Agency respectively.
 
304
For the details, see Price (2013), Chap. 4 – The Role of Government in Aviation Security.
 
305
Naudin (2014) p. 44.
 
306
Price (2013) p. 169.
 
307
Report on the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Bill 2001 (2001-02 HC 351), §1.
 
308
Meads. CCTV Data: is it fit for purpose? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015) p. 18.
 
309
Brooks (2015) p. 31.
 
310
Naylor. TSA Officers Among Lowest Paid Of Federal Workers, NPR, 26 January 2010, http://​www.​npr.​org/​templates/​story/​story.​php?​storyId=​122948752
 
311
RIAnovosti. Terrorist attacks of 24 August 2004 in Tu-154 and Tu-134. Reference. 24 August 2009, http://​ria.​ru/​society/​20090824/​182146689.​html
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Civil Aviation Security
verfasst von
Olga Mironenko Enerstvedt
Copyright-Jahr
2017
Buch
Aviation Security, Privacy, Data Protection and Other Human Rights: Technologies and Legal Principles

Print ISBN: 978-3-319-58138-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-58139-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2017

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58139-2_4