1 Introduction
2 Saliency Detection and Attention Manipulation
3 Experiment
3.1 Hypotheses
3.2 Procedure
3.3 Robot Platform
3.4 Participants
3.5 Measurements
3.5.1 Questionnaires
3.5.2 Proxemics
3.6 Results
3.6.1 Correlations
Variables correlated | Exploration | Interaction | Inter. avoidance | Full interaction | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | p | N | R | p | N | R | p | N | R | p | N | ||
Anthropomorphism: humanlike | Animacy: alive | 0.581 | 0.001 | 28 | 0.654 | 0.000 | 28 | 0.665 | 0.000 | 28 | 0.546 | 0.003 | 28 |
Anthropomorphism: humanlike | Animacy: interactive | 0.513 | 0.005 | 28 | 0.605 | 0.001 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.504 | 0.006 | 28 | ||
Anthropomorphism: humanlike | Perc. Intelligence: knowledgeable | 0.416 | 0.031 | 28 | 0.562 | 0.003 | 26 | 0.571 | 0.002 | 27 | 0.606 | 0.001 | 27 |
Anthropomorphism: humanlike | Perceived Intelligence: competent | 0.476 | 0.011 | 28 | 0.677 | 0.000 | 27 | 0.623 | 0.000 | 28 | 0.564 | 0.002 | 28 |
Anthropomorphism: humanlike | Perceived Intelligence: intelligent | Stat. not signif. | 0.559 | 0.002 | 27 | 0.573 | 0.001 | 28 |
0.713
| 0.000 | 28 | ||
Anthropomorphism: natural | Perc. Intelligence: knowledgeable | 0.498 | 0.008 | 27 | 0.557 | 0.003 | 26 | Stat. not signif. | 0.553 | 0.003 | 27 | ||
Anthropomorphism: natural | Perc. Intelligence: competent | 0.565 | 0.002 | 28 | 0.612 | 0.001 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.572 | 0.001 | 28 | ||
Anthropomorphism: moving elegantly | Perc. Intelligence: knowledgeable | 0.697 | 0.000 | 26 | 0.399 | 0.044 | 26 | 0.654 | 0.000 | 27 | 0.422 | 0.028 | 27 |
Anthropomorphism: moving elegantly | Perceived Intelligence: competent |
0.694
| 0.000 | 27 | 0.483 | 0.011 | 27 | 0.542 | 0.003 | 28 | 0.454 | 0.015 | 28 |
Anthropomorphism: moving elegantly | Likeability: friendly | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.500 | 0.007 | 28 | Stat. not signif. | ||||||
Anthropomorphism: lifelike | Variance Face-Hand (15”–45”) | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.786
| 0.012 | 9 | ||||||
Animacy: lifelike | Likeability: friendly | Stat. not signif. | 0.663 | 0.001 | 23 | −0.425 | 0.043 | 23 | Stat. not signif. | ||||
Animacy: interactive | Anthropomorphism: lifelike |
0.673
| 0.012 | 13 | 0.660 | 0.000 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.556 | 0.002 | 28 | ||
Animacy: interactive | Likeability: friendly | 0.398 | 0.036 | 28 | 0.451 | 0.018 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.655 | 0.000 | 28 | ||
Animacy: interactive | Perceived Intelligence: intelligent |
0.462
| 0.013 | 28 |
0.705
| 0.000 | 26 |
0.403
| 0.033 | 28 |
0.619
| 0.000 | 28 |
Animacy: interactive | User Satisf.: exciting |
0.710
| 0.000 | 28 | 0.551 | 0.004 | 26 | Stat. not signif. |
0.706
| 0.000 | 28 | ||
Animacy: interactive | User Satisf.: satisfying | 0.470 | 0.012 | 28 | 0.687 | 0.000 | 26 | Stat. not signif. | 0.725 | 0.000 | 28 | ||
Animacy: responsive | Average Face-Face distance (60 s.) | 0.633 | 0.037 | 11 | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | ||||||
User Satisf.: satisfying interaction | Anthropomorphism: moving elegantly | 0.505 | 0.007 | 27 | 0.482 | 0.011 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.390 | 0.040 | 28 | ||
User Satisf.: satisfying interaction | Anthropomorphism: lifelike | 0.576 | 0.002 | 26 |
0.653
| 0.000 | 27 | Stat. not signif. | 0.516 | 0.005 | 28 | ||
User Satisf.: satisfying interaction | Animacy: responsive |
0.696
| 0.000 | 28 |
0.722
| 0.000 | 27 | Stat. not signif. |
0.673
| 0.000 | 28 | ||
Perceived Safety: quiescent | Average Face-Face dist. (last 15”) | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.879 | 0.009 | 7 | Stat. not signif. | ||||||
Perceived Safety: quiescent | Average Face-Hand dist. (last 15”) | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.805 | 0.029 | 7 | Stat. not signif. |
Variables correlated | Exploration | Interaction | Inter. avoidance | Full interaction | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | p | N | R | p | N | R | p | N | R | p | N | ||
Variance Face-Hand dist. (0”–15”) | Perceived Safety: quiescent | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.670 | 0.048 | 9 | ||||||
Variance Face-Hand dist. (60 s.) | Likeability: friendly | Stat. not signif. | 0.802 | 0.030 | 7 | Stat. not signif. | −0.673 | 0.047 | 9 | ||||
Variance Face-Hand dist. (60 s.) | Likeability: kind | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.738
| 0.023 | 9 | ||||||
Variance Face-Hand dist. (60 s.) | Likeability: pleasant | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.829
| 0.006 | 9 | ||||||
Variance Face-Hand dist. (60 s.) | User Satisf.: satisfying interaction | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | −0.738
| 0.023 | 9 | ||||||
Variance Face-Face dist. (15”–45”) | Likeability: friendly | Stat. not signif. | 0.809 | 0.028 | 7 | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | ||||||
Average Face-Face dist. (60 s.) | User Satisf.: exciting | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | 0.709 | 0.032 | 9 | ||||||
Average Face-Face dist. (60 s.) | Perc. Intellingence: intelligent | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | Stat. not signif. | 0.729 | 0.026 | 9 |
3.6.2 Repeated Measures ANOVA
Variable | Sphericity assumed | From observ. | To observ. | Mean difference | Std. error | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anthr.: moving elegantly | no | 1 | 3 | −0.889 | 0.252 | 0.010 |
2 | 3 | −0.481 | 0.154 | 0.026 | ||
Animacy: alive | yes | 1 | 2 | −0.75 | 0.203 | 0.006 |
1 | 4 | −0.893 | 0.165 | 0.000 | ||
Animacy: lively | yes | 1 | 2 | −1.222 | 0.284 | 0.001 |
1 | 4 | −0.741 | 0.224 | 0.016 | ||
Animacy: organic | no | 1 | 2 | −0.750 | 0.239 | 0.025 |
2 | 3 | −0.500 | 0.159 | 0.024 | ||
Animacy: interactive | yes | 1 | 2 | −0.815 | 0.251 | 0.019 |
2 | 3 | 1.222 | 0.202 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | −1.000 | 0.233 | 0.001 | ||
Animacy: responsive | yes | 1 | 2 | −0.786 | 0.259 | 0.032 |
2 | 3 | 1.464 | 0.260 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | −1.214 | 0.243 | 0.000 | ||
Likeability: friendly | no | 1 | 3 | 1.000 | 0.230 | 0.001 |
2 | 3 | 1.250 | 0.270 | 0.001 | ||
3 | 4 | −1.107 | 0.274 | 0.002 | ||
Likeability: kind | yes | 1 | 3 | 0.786 | 0.243 | 0.019 |
2 | 3 | 1.107 | 0.248 | 0.001 | ||
3 | 4 | −0.929 | 0.224 | 0.002 | ||
Likeability: pleasant | no | 1 | 3 | 0.929 | 0.185 | 0.000 |
2 | 3 | 1.250 | 0.222 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | −0.964 | 0.238 | 0.002 | ||
Likeability: nice | no | 1 | 3 | 0.714 | 0.198 | 0.008 |
2 | 3 | 0.786 | 0.249 | 0.023 | ||
Perceived Safety: quiescent | yes | 1 | 2 | 0.593 | 0.194 | 0.031 |
2 | 3 | −0.481 | 0.154 | 0.026 | ||
User satisfaction: exciting | no | 1 | 2 | −0.852 | 0.218 | 0.004 |
2 | 3 | 1.407 | 0.234 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 4 | 0.444 | 0.154 | 0.047 | ||
3 | 4 | −0.963 | 0.285 | 0.014 | ||
User satisfaction: satisfying | yes | 1 | 2 | −1.037 | 0.196 | 0.000 |
2 | 3 | 1.519 | 0.222 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | −0.963 | 0.229 | 0.002 |
Variable | Sphericity assumed | From observ. | To observ. | Mean difference | Std. error | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AV FF all | no | 1 | 2 |
13.675
| 0.419 | 0.000 |
1 | 3 | 11.876 | 0.302 | 0.000 | ||
1 | 4 | 9.734 | 0.355 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 3 | −1.799
| 0.360 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 4 | −3.941
| 0.436 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | −2.142 | 0.280 | 0.000 | ||
VAR FF all | no | 1 | 2 | −6.218 | 2.058 | 0.016 |
1 | 3 | −82.552 | 3.014 | 0.000 | ||
1 | 4 |
14.558
| 1.914 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 3 | −76.334 | 2.361 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 4 | 20.776 | 1.633 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | 97.110 | 2.862 | 0.000 | ||
AV FH all | no | 1 | 2 | 14.767 | 0.544 | 0.000 |
1 | 3 |
18.439
| 0.547 | 0.000 | ||
1 | 4 |
21.423
| 0.539 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 3 | 3.672 | 0.294 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 4 | 6.656 | 0.314 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 | 2.985 | 0.307 | 0.000 | ||
VAR FH all | no | 1 | 2 |
20.337
| 3.861 | 0.000 |
1 | 3 | −217.131
| 7.246 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 3 | −237.468
| 6.718 | 0.000 | ||
2 | 4 | −28.076 | 5.602 | 0.000 | ||
3 | 4 |
209.392
| 6.904 | 0.000 |