1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Method
3.1 Data
Variable | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|
Job satisfaction indicators | ||||
Salary | 0.59 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 |
Independence | 0.87 | 0.33 | 0 | 1 |
Social contribution | 0.86 | 0.35 | 0 | 1 |
Career advancement | 0.57 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 |
Mobility perspectives | 0.61 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 |
Social status | 0.83 | 0.38 | 0 | 1 |
Benefits | 0.56 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 |
Job security | 0.74 | 0.44 | 0 | 1 |
Job location | 0.89 | 0.31 | 0 | 1 |
Employer's esteem | 0.86 | 0.34 | 0 | 1 |
Migration indicators | ||||
PhD abroad | 0.26 | 0.44 | 0 | 1 |
Migrant | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 |
Worked abroad | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 |
Worked abroad and PhD abroad | 0.15 | 0.36 | 0 | 1 |
Worked abroad, no PhD abroad | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 |
Not worked abroad, PhD abroad | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0 | 1 |
Neither worked abroad or PhD abroad | 0.36 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 |
Repeat-migrant | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0 | 1 |
Return-migrant | 0.15 | 0.35 | 0 | 1 |
Non-movers | 0.64 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 |
University-stayers | 0.06 | 0.24 | 0 | 1 |
Late-movers | 0.11 | 0.31 | 0 | 1 |
Individual specific characteristics | ||||
Female | 0.34 | 0.47 | 0 | 1 |
International collaboration | 0.78 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 |
Couple with children | 0.60 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 |
Couple w/o children | 0.19 | 0.39 | 0 | 1 |
Single with children | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0 | 1 |
Research: engineering | 0.14 | 0.35 | 0 | 1 |
Research: humanities | 0.11 | 0.31 | 0 | 1 |
Research: medical sciences | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 |
Research: natural sciences | 0.23 | 0.42 | 0 | 1 |
Research: social sciences | 0.27 | 0.45 | 0 | 1 |
Degree in engineering | 0.14 | 0.35 | 0 | 1 |
Degree in humanities | 0.12 | 0.32 | 0 | 1 |
Degree in medical sciences | 0.18 | 0.39 | 0 | 1 |
Degree in natural sciences | 0.27 | 0.45 | 0 | 1 |
Degree in social sciences | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0 | 1 |
Research mismatch | 0.12 | 0.33 | 0 | 1 |
Recognized researcher | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0 | 1 |
Established researcher | 0.41 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 |
Permanent contract | 0.71 | 0.45 | 0 | 1 |
Dual position | 0.09 | 0.29 | 0 | 1 |
Teaching: 25% of less | 0.30 | 0.46 | 0 | 1 |
Teaching: 26–50% | 0.38 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 |
Teaching: 51–75% | 0.16 | 0.37 | 0 | 1 |
Teaching: 76–100% | 0.06 | 0.24 | 0 | 1 |
Confidence for the future | 3.03 | 0.82 | 1 | 4 |
Age 25–29 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0 | 1 |
Age 30–34 | 0.13 | 0.34 | 0 | 1 |
Age 35–39 | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0 | 1 |
Age 40–44 | 0.19 | 0.39 | 0 | 1 |
Age 45–49 | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0 | 1 |
Age 50–54 | 0.14 | 0.35 | 0 | 1 |
Age 55–59 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0 | 1 |
Age | 44.83 | 9.35 | 25 | 65 |
Knows Euraxess | 0.13 | 0.34 | 0 | 1 |
Knows Marie Curie | 0.73 | 0.44 | 0 | 1 |
3.2 Empirical strategy
4 Results
Variables | Salary | Independence | Social contribution | Career | Mobility | Social status | Benefits | Job security | Job location | Employer's esteem |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Reference: Non-mover | ||||||||||
Repeat-migrant | 0.097*** | 0.047*** | − 0.095*** | 0.299*** | 0.239*** | 0.176*** | 0.072*** | 0.129*** | − 0.042*** | − 0.067*** |
(0.002) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.049) | (0.011) | (0.004) | |
Return-migrant | − 0.364*** | − 0.000 | − 0.306*** | − 0.025*** | 0.182*** | 0.090*** | 0.364*** | 0.058 | − 0.069*** | − 0.076*** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.006) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.046) | (0.007) | (0.003) | |
University-stayer | − 0.043*** | − 0.237*** | − 0.040*** | 0.152*** | 0.334*** | 0.016*** | 0.120*** | 0.041 | − 0.283*** | − 0.015 |
(0.001) | (0.006) | (0.005) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.056) | (0.022) | (0.011) | |
Late-mover | 0.090*** | 0.117*** | − 0.026*** | − 0.245*** | 0.032*** | − 0.258*** | 0.084*** | 0.047 | − 0.066*** | − 0.280*** |
(0.002) | (0.005) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.045) | (0.011) | (0.006) | |
Reference: Age 60–65 | ||||||||||
Age 25–29 | − 0.060*** | 0.051*** | − 0.158*** | 0.081*** | 0.138*** | 0.058*** | 0.147*** | − 0.041 | 0.061*** | − 0.055*** |
(0.002) | (0.008) | (0.005) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.006) | (0.062) | (0.023) | (0.012) | |
Age 30–34 | − 0.112*** | 0.032*** | − 0.070*** | 0.115*** | 0.102*** | − 0.018*** | 0.011*** | − 0.079** | 0.041*** | − 0.028*** |
(0.002) | (0.005) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.032) | (0.012) | (0.006) | |
Age 35–39 | − 0.148*** | − 0.054*** | − 0.063*** | 0.063*** | − 0.002 | − 0.017*** | 0.020*** | − 0.046* | − 0.009 | − 0.032*** |
(0.002) | (0.005) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.024) | (0.012) | (0.004) | |
Age 40–44 | − 0.188*** | − 0.102*** | − 0.083*** | − 0.004** | − 0.026*** | − 0.024*** | 0.004*** | − 0.068*** | − 0.029*** | − 0.011*** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.023) | (0.011) | (0.002) | |
Age 45–49 | − 0.140*** | − 0.041*** | − 0.042*** | 0.033*** | − 0.014*** | 0.018*** | 0.010*** | − 0.031 | 0.006 | − 0.016*** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.021) | (0.010) | (0.003) | |
Age 50–54 | − 0.159*** | − 0.061*** | − 0.042*** | 0.060*** | − 0.025*** | − 0.033*** | 0.051*** | 0.014 | 0.007 | − 0.012** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.021) | (0.011) | (0.005) | |
Age 55–59 | − 0.061*** | − 0.061*** | − 0.012*** | − 0.063*** | 0.004 | − 0.006** | − 0.029*** | 0.020 | − 0.016 | − 0.052*** |
(0.001) | (0.005) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.022) | (0.011) | (0.004) | |
Female | − 0.020*** | 0.022*** | 0.021*** | 0.011*** | 0.010*** | − 0.011*** | − 0.025*** | 0.020 | 0.006 | − 0.012*** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.013) | (0.005) | (0.002) | |
International collaboration | 0.018*** | − 0.025*** | − 0.009*** | − 0.057*** | 0.043*** | − 0.017*** | − 0.028*** | − 0.047*** | − 0.019*** | − 0.044*** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.015) | (0.006) | (0.004) | |
Reference: Single without children | ||||||||||
Couple w/ children | − 0.068*** | 0.017*** | 0.017*** | − 0.023*** | − 0.021*** | − 0.008*** | − 0.064*** | − 0.021 | 0.028*** | − 0.022*** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.017) | (0.006) | (0.002) | |
Couple w/o children | − 0.113*** | − 0.023*** | 0.015*** | − 0.051*** | -0.002 | − 0.037*** | − 0.078*** | − 0.039* | 0.039*** | − 0.058*** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.021) | (0.007) | (0.004) | |
Single w/ children | − 0.027*** | 0.049*** | 0.044*** | − 0.203*** | − 0.093*** | -0.136*** | − 0.174*** | − 0.101 | 0.070*** | 0.058*** |
(0.003) | (0.003) | (0.009) | (0.002) | (0.007) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.071) | (0.009) | (0.010) | |
Reference: Research in agriculture | ||||||||||
Research: engineering | 0.026*** | 0.012** | 0.108*** | 0.015*** | 0.099*** | -0.114*** | − 0.033*** | − 0.003 | − 0.023** | − 0.002 |
(0.002) | (0.006) | (0.005) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.038) | (0.011) | (0.004) | |
Research: humanities | 0.051*** | − 0.020*** | 0.068*** | 0.025*** | − 0.023*** | − 0.076*** | − 0.081*** | − 0.016 | − 0.034*** | − 0.013*** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.039) | (0.010) | (0.003) | |
Research: medical | 0.079*** | − 0.017*** | 0.098*** | 0.078*** | − 0.008*** | − 0.041*** | − 0.011*** | 0.018 | 0.000 | 0.056*** |
(0.001) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.001) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.037) | (0.008) | (0.002) | |
Research: natural sciences | 0.063*** | 0.030*** | 0.052*** | 0.018*** | − 0.004 | − 0.075*** | − 0.005*** | 0.003 | − 0.029*** | 0.036*** |
(0.002) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.037) | (0.007) | (0.004) | |
Research: social sciences | 0.057*** | 0.008* | 0.063*** | − 0.001 | 0.034*** | − 0.066*** | − 0.034*** | − 0.001 | − 0.015** | 0.049*** |
(0.001) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.001) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.037) | (0.007) | (0.003) | |
Research mismatch | − 0.035*** | 0.000 | 0.003** | − 0.056*** | − 0.040*** | − 0.037*** | − 0.039*** | − 0.008 | 0.012** | 0.005** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.019) | (0.005) | (0.002) | |
Reference: Leading researcher | ||||||||||
Recognized researcher | 0.033*** | − 0.084*** | − 0.053*** | − 0.063*** | − 0.049*** | 0.004*** | 0.012*** | − 0.032 | 0.038*** | 0.017*** |
(0.001) | (0.006) | (0.007) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.022) | (0.010) | (0.005) | |
Established researcher | 0.015*** | − 0.020*** | − 0.030*** | − 0.051*** | − 0.057*** | − 0.010*** | 0.014*** | 0.011 | 0.037*** | − 0.021*** |
(0.001) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.013) | (0.006) | (0.004) | |
Permanent contract | − 0.002** | − 0.016*** | 0.012 | 0.031*** | − 0.027*** | 0.023*** | − 0.012*** | 0.477*** | 0.035*** | − 0.027*** |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.007) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.023) | (0.009) | (0.002) | |
Dual position | − 0.032*** | − 0.000 | − 0.003 | 0.076*** | 0.000 | − 0.009*** | − 0.022*** | 0.012 | − 0.061*** | − 0.037*** |
(0.002) | (0.007) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.021) | (0.008) | (0.003) | |
Reference: No teaching | ||||||||||
Teaching 25% or less | − 0.062*** | − 0.008*** | 0.006 | 0.039*** | 0.009*** | 0.035*** | − 0.001 | − 0.001 | − 0.008 | − 0.003 |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.030) | (0.009) | (0.005) | |
Teaching 26 to 50% | − 0.048*** | 0.006* | − 0.026*** | 0.042*** | − 0.036*** | 0.049*** | 0.028*** | 0.054* | − 0.020** | − 0.006 |
(0.001) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.029) | (0.010) | (0.005) | |
Teaching 51 to 75% | − 0.080*** | − 0.019*** | − 0.042*** | 0.001 | − 0.067*** | 0.047*** | − 0.042*** | 0.041 | − 0.065*** | − 0.043*** |
(0.002) | (0.005) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.032) | (0.010) | (0.008) | |
Teaching 76 to 100% | − 0.124*** | − 0.072*** | − 0.034*** | − 0.038*** | − 0.100*** | − 0.031*** | 0.025*** | 0.028 | − 0.068*** | − 0.123*** |
(0.002) | (0.005) | (0.010) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.037) | (0.010) | (0.004) | |
Confidence for the future | 0.065*** | 0.083*** | 0.073*** | 0.216*** | 0.139*** | 0.104*** | 0.094*** | 0.097*** | 0.058*** | 0.066*** |
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.009) | (0.003) | (0.002) | |
Destination country FE | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 0.384*** | 0.781*** | − 0.198*** | − 0.263*** | 0.306*** | 0.362*** | 0.547*** | 0.203* | 0.785*** | 0.420*** |
(0.006) | (0.011) | (0.014) | (0.005) | (0.009) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.113) | (0.024) | (0.008) | |
Selection outcomes | ||||||||||
Ln(σ) | − 5.795*** | − 4.979*** | − 5.303*** | − 5.899*** | − 5.840*** | − 5.588*** | − 6.052*** | − 1.178*** | − 3.955*** | − 5.073*** |
(0.150) | (0.119) | (0.132) | (0.169) | (0.108) | (0.129) | (0.089) | (0.077) | (0.111) | (0.140) | |
λ repeat-migrant | − 0.090*** | − 0.017*** | 0.031*** | − 0.217*** | − 0.280*** | − 0.081*** | 0.006*** | − 0.074* | − 0.052*** | − 0.007*** |
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.038) | (0.005) | (0.001) | |
λ return-migrant | 0.414*** | − 0.007*** | 0.340*** | 0.007*** | − 0.179*** | − 0.085*** | − 0.456*** | − 0.061 | 0.026*** | 0.014*** |
(0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.044) | (0.002) | (0.001) | |
λ university-stayer | 0.087*** | 0.321*** | − 0.028*** | − 0.122*** | − 0.313*** | − 0.017*** | − 0.105*** | − 0.061 | 0.292*** | − 0.038*** |
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.042) | (0.002) | (0.001) | |
λ late-mover | − 0.085*** | − 0.080*** | − 0.026*** | 0.377*** | − 0.021*** | 0.354*** | − 0.045*** | − 0.037 | − 0.014*** | 0.345*** |
(0.000) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.045) | (0.003) | (0.001) | |
Observations | 3,161 | 3,185 | 3,051 | 3,023 | 2,978 | 3,059 | 2,978 | 3,162 | 3,189 | 3,081 |
Wald χ2 | 1,904,537.32 | 68,484.93 | 225,487.03 | 4,331,113.6 | 6,296,785.41 | 1,109,147.6 | 3,351,261 | 3376.36 | 6510.12 | 174,160.96 |
Log pseudolikelihood | − 4231.675 | − 3449.525 | − 3329.518 | − 4138.726 | − 4124.991 | − 3558.262 | − 4126.83 | − 3521.417 | − 3182.68 | − 3396.4367 |
Likelihood Ratio (LR) | 268.695 | 185.109 | 214.364 | 253.106 | 266.646 | 261.787 | 310.841 | 2.191 | 81.553 | 199.042 |
LR p-value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.701 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Repeat-migrant | Return-migrant | Non-mover | University-stayer | Late-mover | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | − 0.0015*** | 0.0028*** | 0.0041*** | − 0.0018*** | − 0.0035*** |
(0.0004) | (0.0005) | (0.0008) | (0.0005) | (0.0006) | |
Female | − 0.0206** | − 0.0025 | 0.0430*** | − 0.0002 | − 0.0197* |
(0.0085) | (0.0104) | (0.0158) | (0.0078) | (0.0110) | |
Knows Euraxess | 0.0397*** | 0.0086 | − 0.0937*** | 0.0044 | 0.0410*** |
(0.0078) | (0.0138) | (0.0201) | (0.0100) | (0.0128) | |
Knows Marie Curie | 0.0148 | 0.0253** | − 0.0661*** | − 0.0028 | 0.0287** |
(0.0096) | (0.0121) | (0.0172) | (0.0080) | (0.0120) | |
Couple w/ children | − 0.0098 | − 0.0103 | 0.0481*** | 0.0040 | − 0.0320*** |
(0.0084) | (0.0130) | (0.0185) | (0.0096) | (0.0118) | |
Couple w/o children | 0.0073 | 0.0141 | − 0.0268 | 0.0203** | − 0.0148 |
(0.0094) | (0.0157) | (0.0220) | (0.0102) | (0.0144) | |
Single w/ children | 0.0386 | 0.0528 | − 0.1306* | 0.0456 | − 0.0063 |
(0.0290) | (0.0367) | (0.0766) | (0.0332) | (0.0654) | |
Degree: engineering | − 0.0094 | 0.0128 | − 0.0204 | 0.0042 | 0.0127 |
(0.0178) | (0.0247) | (0.0459) | (0.0269) | (0.0355) | |
Degree: humanities | 0.0048 | 0.0529** | − 0.1095** | 0.0168 | 0.0350 |
(0.0187) | (0.0253) | (0.0474) | (0.0271) | (0.0359) | |
Degree: medical sciences | − 0.0342* | 0.0183 | − 0.0240 | 0.0167 | 0.0232 |
(0.0194) | (0.0241) | (0.0454) | (0.0266) | (0.0351) | |
Degree: natural sciences | − 0.0005 | 0.0141 | − 0.0657 | 0.0140 | 0.0381 |
(0.0165) | (0.0238) | (0.0444) | (0.0262) | (0.0343) | |
Degree: social sciences | 0.0106 | 0.0280 | − 0.0522 | 0.0140 | − 0.0005 |
(0.0165) | (0.0234) | (0.0443) | (0.0261) | (0.0349) | |
Growth rate of GDP per capita | − 0.2478*** | 0.5240*** | 0.2371 | − 0.0113 | − 0.5021*** |
(0.0880) | (0.2029) | (0.2103) | (0.0980) | (0.2757) | |
Empowerment Rights Index | − 0.0321*** | 0.0323*** | 0.1195*** | − 0.0356*** | − 0.0841*** |
(0.0063) | (0.0121) | (0.0185) | (0.0067) | (0.0119) | |
Human Capital Index | 0.0648* | − 0.0947** | − 0.1214** | 0.0483 | 0.1030** |
(0.0354) | (0.0458) | (0.0659) | (0.0370) | (0.0464) | |
Gini | 0.0024 | − 0.0073 | 0.0154** | 0.0007 | − 0.0112*** |
(0.0019) | (0.0061) | (0.0073) | (0.0028) | (0.0038) | |
Openness | − 0.0004 | 0.0017*** | 0.0009 | − 0.0007* | − 0.0016*** |
(0.0003) | (0.0006) | (0.0007) | (0.0004) | (0.0005) | |
Polity IV | − 0.0002 | − 0.0005 | 0.0016 | − 0.0032* | 0.0023 |
(0.0020) | (0.0045) | (0.0055) | (0.0018) | (0.0033) | |
Employment protection | − 0.0088 | 0.0108 | − 0.0039 | − 0.0008 | 0.0027 |
(0.0110) | (0.0301) | (0.0278) | (0.0166) | (0.0257) | |
Gross savings (% GDP) | − 0.0013 | − 0.0088** | 0.0038 | 0.0052*** | 0.0011 |
(0.0017) | (0.0041) | (0.0034) | (0.0016) | (0.0027) | |
Health expenditure, private (% of GDP) | − 0.0064 | 0.0823*** | − 0.0174 | − 0.0253*** | − 0.0332** |
(0.0098) | (0.0163) | (0.0210) | (0.0084) | (0.0132) | |
Compensation (tertiary education) | − 0.0004 | − 0.0032 | 0.0043* | − 0.0003 | − 0.0005 |
(0.0010) | (0.0021) | (0.0024) | (0.0008) | (0.0016) | |
Government expenditures (tertiary education) | − 0.0069*** | 0.0033 | 0.0239*** | − 0.0062** | − 0.0141*** |
(0.0024) | (0.0050) | (0.0072) | (0.0025) | (0.0045) | |
Unemployment (with tertiary degree) | 0.0030 | 0.0016 | − 0.0145*** | − 0.0002 | 0.0101*** |
(0.0019) | (0.0032) | (0.0053) | (0.0023) | (0.0034) | |
Youth unemployment | − 0.0034** | 0.0018 | 0.0092*** | − 0.0006 | − 0.0070*** |
(0.0014) | (0.0020) | (0.0029) | (0.0013) | (0.0018) | |
Observations | 3331 | ||||
Wald χ2 | 767.77 | ||||
Prob > χ2 | 0.000 | ||||
Pseudo R2 | 0.1808 | ||||
Log pseudolikelihood | − 2707.051 |
Satisfaction (sum) | Satisfaction (IRT) | |
---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | |
Repeat-migrants | 0.746** | 0.203** |
(0.304) | (0.088) | |
Return-migrants | 0.879*** | 0.421*** |
(0.174) | (0.056) | |
University-stayers | 0.417 | − 0.124 |
(0.317) | (0.094) | |
Late-movers | 0.120 | 0.212*** |
(0.196) | (0.061) | |
Individual controls | Yes | Yes |
Destination country FE | Yes | Yes |
ln(σ) | 0.219 | − 1.088*** |
(0.138) | (0.164) | |
λ: repeat-migrants | − 0.693*** | − 0.140** |
(0.249) | (0.061) | |
λ: return-migrants | − 1.037*** | − 0.494*** |
(0.149) | (0.039) | |
λ: university-stayers | − 0.483* | 0.159** |
(0.266) | (0.063) | |
λ: late-movers | − 0.245 | − 0.230*** |
(0.212) | (0.052) | |
Observations | 3,238 | 3,239 |
LR-test | 11.25 | 9.76 |
LR-test p value | 0.024 | 0.044 |
Variables | Salary | Independence | Social contribution | Career | Mobility | Social status | Benefits | Job security | Job location | Employer’s esteem |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Reference: Neither worked or obtained Ph.D. abroad – Work_PhD4 | ||||||||||
Work_PhD1 | 0.197* | 0.008** | 0.136*** | 0.012 | 0.173 | 0.150*** | 0.441*** | 0.146** | 0.040*** | − 0.046*** |
(0.109) | (0.004) | (0.002) | (0.076) | (0.119) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.074) | (0.007) | (0.002) | |
Work_PhD2 | 0.064 | − 0.301*** | 0.156*** | − 0.127 | 0.135*** | 0.204*** | 0.097*** | 0.200*** | 0.045*** | − 0.316*** |
(0.070) | (0.003) | (0.001) | (0.166) | (0.031) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.033) | (0.005) | (0.004) | |
Work_PhD3 | − 0.305*** | 0.086*** | 0.095*** | 0.182 | − 0.237*** | 0.073*** | − 0.007*** | 0.089 | − 0.300*** | − 0.046*** |
(0.109) | (0.004) | (0.002) | (0.126) | (0.084) | (0.004) | (0.001) | (0.084) | (0.011) | (0.004) | |
Individual controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Destination country FE | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Selection outcomes | ||||||||||
Ln(σ) | − 2.246*** | − 4.850*** | − 5.338*** | − 0.929*** | − 1.549*** | − 5.273*** | − 5.806*** | − 1.845*** | − 4.177*** | − 5.057*** |
(0.739) | (0.115) | (0.078) | (0.085) | (0.254) | (0.108) | (0.115) | (0.202) | (0.110) | (0.132) | |
λ work_PhD1 | − 0.222* | − 0.028*** | − 0.211*** | − 0.067 | − 0.162 | − 0.193*** | − 0.455*** | − 0.144 | − 0.053*** | − 0.024*** |
(0.131) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.077) | (0.129) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.089) | (0.003) | (0.001) | |
λ work_PhD2 | − 0.108 | 0.345*** | − 0.235*** | 0.130 | − 0.116*** | − 0.296*** | − 0.112*** | − − 0.245*** | − 0.109*** | 0.356*** |
(0.074) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.198) | (0.030) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.038) | (0.003) | (0.001) | |
λ work_PhD3 | 0.349*** | − 0.051*** | − 0.159*** | − 0.148 | 0.360*** | − 0.127*** | 0.086*** | − 0.106 | 0.284*** | 0.012*** |
(0.106) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.133) | (0.078) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.083) | (0.002) | (0.001) | |
Observations | 3,161 | 3,185 | 3,051 | 3,023 | 2,978 | 3,059 | 2,978 | 3,162 | 3,189 | 3,081 |
Wald χ2 | 3413.23 | 78,975.65 | 845,986.54 | 1699.31 | 1303.66 | 216,830 | 1,959,469 | 3342.93 | 17,941.23 | 158,122.93 |
Prob > χ2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Log-likelihood | − 5202.799 | − 4301.127 | − 4146.958 | − 5078.981 | − 5062.668 | − 4442.477 | − 4968.876 | − 4381.544 | − 4014.606 | − 4220.368 |
LR test | 22.582 | 192.661 | 222.040 | 3.474 | 9.690 | 171.294 | 244.170 | 8.669 | 133.582 | 200.445 |
LR p value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.324 | 0.021 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.034 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Salary | Independence | Social contribution | Career | Mobility | Social status | Benefits | Job security | Job location | Employer’s esteem | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Migrant | 0.065 | 0.057* | − 0.006 | 0.027 | 0.122** | − 0.023 | 0.112* | 0.039 | − 0.062** | − 0.448*** |
(0.062) | (0.030) | (0.031) | (0.056) | (0.059) | (0.066) | (0.067) | (0.035) | (0.031) | (0.027) | |
Individual controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Destination country FE | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Selection outcomes | ||||||||||
Ln(σ) | − 0.849*** | − 1.115*** | − 1.097*** | − 0.818*** | − 0.789*** | − 1.013*** | − 0.790*** | − 1.108*** | − 1.218*** | − 0.980*** |
(0.010) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.009) | (0.009) | (0.015) | (0.008) | (0.016) | (0.022) | (0.023) | |
Observations | 3161 | 3185 | 3051 | 3023 | 2978 | 3059 | 2978 | 3162 | 3189 | 3081 |
Wald \({\chi }^{2}\) | 1658.08 | 238.34 | 4986.24 | 1175.11 | 626.99 | 337.68 | 789.38 | 2540.72 | 248.45 | 523.29 |
Prob > \({\chi }^{2}\) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Log likelihood | − 3018.121 | − 2194.953 | − 2152.469 | − 2974.427 | − 2997.882 | − 2405.164 | − 3012.335 | − 2193.628 | − 1873.495 | − 2167.946 |