Pollutants of Global Concern

Frontmatter

Aldrin

Abstract

Because of its harmful qualities and environmental endurance, aldrin, a persistent organic pollutant (POP), has been a source of global concern. Aldrin was first introduced as an agricultural pesticide, but its use was prohibited in many countries, including India, under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Despite the prohibition, aldrin’s long-term environmental persistence continues to pose serious issues. Aldrin’s residues can still be found in many parts of the earth. Bioaccumulation of aldrin has occurred as a result of residual pollution in soil and water sources, impacting animals and potentially compromising human health through food chain exposure. This chapter highlights examples of such cases, as well as the impact of aldrin as a POP in India and globally, emphasizing the status of this organochlorine pesticide (OCP) in the country, its environmental risks and effects on biota, and the importance of international cooperation to effectively manage and eliminate this dangerous pollutant. Understanding the complexity of aldrin’s persistence and its current condition at the national and international levels would allow India to contribute to the global effort to preserve the environment and human well-being from the harmful impacts of persistent organic pollutants.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar

Chlordane

Abstract

Chlordane is a versatile, broad-spectrum contact insecticide that is typically used to protect structures and crops, but it can also be used on turf, lawns, ornamental trees, and drainage ditches. Chlordane production, use, and import have all been outlawed since September 20, 1996. When compared to TEL (threshold effect level) values, some researchers reported higher chlordane concentrations in soil at few places of India, which raises the possibility of adverse effects on the environment. In important rivers like the Ganga and Gomti, chlordane levels were found to be higher than MRL (maximum residual limit). Similarly, both the Pacific and the African regions have seen an increase in chlordane levels on a regional scale. In comparison to GMP1 (Global Monitoring Plan), chlordane levels were higher in GMP2 with a higher global mean (1%) and median (27%) values. This chapter is an attempt to understand the present scenario of residual chlordane at national and global level with prevailing management practices. The establishment of appropriate assessment guidelines is an important milestone that will contribute to the nation’s comprehending of chlordane.

Kanchan Kumari, Senerita Swamy

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)

Abstract

DDT is a synthetic pesticide that belongs to the organic halogen compound family. Its usage has had a considerable detrimental influence on the health of animals and has resulted in extensive pollution of water and soil resources. The Stockholm Convention permits a limited exemption for the use of DDT in mosquito control program to suppress the vector that causes malaria. DDT has been classified by IARC as a possible carcinogen in humans. Most studies, including those conducted on Indian populations from diverse geographic regions, reported significant levels of DDT in human milk and blood. Between 2001 and 2014, global DDT usage for malaria and leishmaniosis prevention decreased by 30%. The majority of countries appear to have regulations in place that prohibit or restrict DDT manufacture, import, export, and usage, demonstrating that progress has been made in implementing or modifying national DDT legislation. India is also focusing on its efforts to reduce dependency on DDT by promoting the Long-Lasting Insecticidal Net (LLIN) and Neem-based and bacteria-based biopesticides. This is encouraged for the future, and additional remedial efforts should be made to eliminate DDT residuals from severely contaminated places.

Kanchan Kumari, Senerita Swamy

Dieldrin

Abstract

Dieldrin, classified as a chlorinated cyclodiene compound and a popular pesticide, was ranked second in the United States in the 1960s among all the agricultural pesticides. Globally, it was a well-known insecticide for mothproofing clothes as well as for treating pests for crops such as cotton, corn, etc. However, its transformation from agricultural benefit to environmental and health issue demonstrates the intricacies of pesticide use. Dieldrin’s persistence in the environment became a major worry that led to its inclusion among the Dirty Dozens by the Stockholm Convention, initiating a ban on its production, usage, and trade globally. However, its exhaustive applications have left the evidences of this pollutant since its residues remain in soil, sediments, etc., and even animals, serving as a constant reminder of the long-term repercussions of unrestrained chemical usage. This chapter is an attempt to delve into the varied consequences and records of residual dieldrin especially in India to understand its current fate and status.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar

Endrin

Abstract

Endrin, an organochlorine insecticide, rose to prominence in the mid-twentieth century for its efficacy in eliminating agricultural pests. Its usage, however, created a hazardous legacy that triggered regulatory action in a number of nations. This chapter gives a succinct review of endrin’s essential characteristics, environmental effect, and human health concerns. Concerns have been expressed regarding endrin’s long-term ecological consequences due to its persistence in the environment and bio accumulative abilities . It has been connected to negative consequences for non-target animals and biota. It also highlights the continuous endeavor to encourage sustainable environmental practises by exploring safer alternatives to toxic chemicals. Endrin’s legacy serves as a reminder of the need of safeguarding both ecosystems and human well-being in our pursuit of long-term cohabitation with the natural world.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar

Heptachlor

Abstract

This chapter delves into the critical topic of heptachlor, a notorious organochlorine pesticide listed under persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Heptachlor has left a lasting mark on the environment, particularly in Europe, Asia and USA, where its use and impact have been significant. Heptachlor has been classified as a possible human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The chapter explores the extent of environmental contamination caused by heptachlor, its adverse health effects on both humans and ecosystems, and the challenges associated with its remediation. Additionally, it examines the regulatory measures in place to control the use and spread of this harmful chemical. This comprehensive analysis sheds light on the urgent need for stricter chemical regulation and effective remediation strategies to mitigate the continuing threat posed by heptachlor.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe

Hexachlorobenzene

Abstract

Hexachlorobenzene, originally used to prevent wheat bunting, is produced as a byproduct in the production of chemicals related to chlorine and could potentially be present as an impurity. Multitudes of interrelated health effects of HCBs have been reported. Considered a probable human carcinogen, all routes of administration for HCBs are regarded as toxic. The most sensitive indications of these chemical substances have reportedly been found to be hepatotoxicity and immunotoxicity. In Indian context, the detection of HCB levels in environmental samples analyzed for different cities is quite low which is in line with predictions published in previous studies that HCB emissions will decrease considering improved chemical and metal manufacturing and handling methods of growing nations. Despite the substance’s use being prohibited for many years, HCB contamination clean-up continues to be a problem for the environment. A number of methods can be used to get rid of HCB traces in soil and sediment. There is a lack of literature on the extensive and pilot scale remediation of HCB-contaminated soils, sediments, and waters. Thus, the focus of recent studies has been notably on pilot-scale electro kinetic remediation. Still, additional data is needed for estimating the equivalence factors between the consequences and their toxic potential.

Kanchan Kumari, Senerita Swamy

Mirex

Abstract

Mirex, a versatile chemical compound once employed as an insecticide and fire retardant, has raised concerns due to its environmental persistence and potential health risks. This polychlorinated pesticide belongs to the organochlorine class, with remarkable stability and a half-life of up to 10 years, allowing it to accumulate in ecosystems and the food chain. Mirex’s toxicity extends to various plant and aquatic species, making it a threat to wildlife and biodiversity. While direct human exposure does not exhibit immediate harm, laboratory studies suggest a possible link between mirex and cancer. Consequently, many countries have imposed restrictions or bans on mirex, promoting safer alternatives for pest control and fire protection. This chapter highlights the multifaceted issues surrounding mirex, emphasizing its persistence, toxicity, and regulatory actions.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe

Toxaphene

Abstract

Toxaphene, also known as camphechlor, is a complex compound composed of polychlorinated bornanes (CHBs) and various camphenes. It was formerly one among the most widely used chlorinated pesticides on the planet, with total quantities used estimated in mega tonnes. It was primarily a commercial product that was popularized for use in agricultural and as animal insecticides, but it was later designated as a persistent pollutant by the Stockholm Convention. Toxaphene has been demonstrated to travel large distances and is considered a common environmental pollutant. It has been demonstrated that like other organochlorine insecticides, it bioaccumulates in aquatic creatures. There is minimal information on toxaphene in animal feed; however, it has been linked to fish and shellfish products. Toxaphene is a recognized endocrine disruptor and a likely carcinogen, according to toxicological evidence. As a result, this chapter emphasizes the issues faced by toxaphene contamination as well as the many proactive ways that address its consequences.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

Abstract

Polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, are a broad category of organic chemicals used in a variety of industrial and commercial processes. Despite being used in industrial settings, PCBs have never been manufactured in India. India, being a signatory, is required to comply with the Stockholm Convention’s requirements to phase out PCB use in equipment by 2025 and eliminate PCBs entirely by 2028. Since 1966, PCBs have been found in environmental matrices, and depositions of industrial applications, incinerators, and biomass combustions are some of the ways they are exposed in soil. Thirteen of the 209 different PCB types show toxicity similar to that of dioxin. PCBs have been classified as probable human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as well as by Environment protection Agency and listed by the Stockholm Convention as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under Dirty Dozens. Exposure assessment studies have been carried out in humans as a function of health, along with studies on particular matrices like the atmosphere, soil, water, and organisms, but there is still a need for additional research to determine how these matrices can more accurately reflect on humans.

Kanchan Kumari, Senerita Swamy

Dioxins and Furans

Abstract

Dioxins and furans are members of the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and dibenzofuran (PCDF) families that are released unintentionally during the various combustion processes. These hazardous and long-lasting organic pollutants have gotten a lot of attention because of their negative impact on human health and the environment. When released into the atmosphere, they may travel long distances and deposit in soil, water bodies, and sediments, resulting in their global dispersion. PCDDs/PCDFs have been associated in epidemiological studies with a variety of adverse health effects, including cancer, reproductive issues, and developmental abnormalities. This chapter presents a complete overview of dioxins and furans, including their chemical characteristics, sources, national and worldwide status, and possible health and environmental effects. The varied climate and topography of India affect the fate and transit of these pollutants, resulting in regional differences in concentrations. In response to increased concern over dioxin and furan pollution, India has implemented a number of regulatory measures and strategies to limit their discharge. However, evaluating the effectiveness of policies created or laws imposed is crucial to ensuring the development of any emission-cutting initiatives that may garner public support.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar, K. P. Prathish

Hexachlorocyclohexane (α, β-HCH) and Lindane (γ-HCH)

Abstract

Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), a group of chemical isomers known for their potent insecticidal properties, have been widely used in pest control and agriculture. This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of HCH and discusses its chemical properties, toxicological effects and management strategies. The three primary isomers—alpha-HCH, beta-HCH, and gamma-HCH (Lindane)—are examined for their distinct structures and implications for human health and the environment. This chapter emphasizes the adverse health outcomes associated with HCH exposure, including neurological disorders and liver toxicity. This underscores the importance of undertaking further research to comprehensively assess potential risks, particularly in relation to contaminated food sources. The challenges of managing HCH contamination, including proper disposal and international collaborations, are discussed. Overall, this chapter highlights the critical need to address HCH-related issues to ensure the well-being of both ecosystems and human populations.

Kanchan Kumari, Md. Shahbaz, Karthik Raghunathan

Chlordecone

Abstract

Kepone, occasionally referred to as chlordecone, a synthetic chlorinated organic compound, made its first appearance in 1958. This chemical’s main application was as a pesticide, and it also treated fungal infections on bananas, non-bearing citrus trees, tobacco, and in lawns and flowers. As a result of occupational toxicity induced by being exposed to this industrial chemicals, the product was withdrawn from the market in the year 1975. The most prominent signs of chlordecone poisoning are tremors and an inability to control one’s excitability. These symptoms are brought on by a shift in the levels of neurotransmitters known as dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic systems. It is extremely improbable that chlordecone may cause cancer if it is taken orally. The molecule will enter the liver once it has completed its journey through the digestive system, which is where it will undergo concentration. Chlordecone alcohol and glucuronide conjugates are the primary metabolites that are produced. In spite of the fact that chlordecone does not degrade naturally, the data imply that its breakdown occurs in a steady and methodical fashion. The chemical has been listed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under Annex A in 2009 in Stockholm Convention, and India also banned its manufacture, uses, export, and import in 2018. The environmental fate, persistency, toxicity, and health related issues have been discussed in this chapter in detail.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe, Karthik Raghunathan

Hexabromobiphenyl (HBB)

Abstract

The Stockholm Convention has listed various groups of brominated chemicals considering their toxicity and persistency. Hexabromobiphenyl (HBB), a member of the polybrominated biphenyl group, is a persistent organic pollutant (POP) with carcinogenic and toxic effects. Worldwide, including India, China, Japan, and the United States, notable advancement has been made in the area of management of POP chemicals considering the Convention’s guidelines and related obligations. This chapter provides technical details, historical usage, and regulatory status of the HBB on national and global scale. It highlights its production, trade names, and effects on health and the environment. International regulations and guidelines related to HBB, including its bioaccumulation, toxicity, and environmental fate are discussed. In comparison with other persistent organic pollutants (POPs), limited scientific work on HBB in the Indian context is noted. The chapter emphasizes the need for continued research, remedial actions, and strict evaluations to prevent the reintroduction of HBB into the environment.

Kanchan Kumari, T. Arfin

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)

Abstract

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), a brominated flame retardant, is extensively used globally in products like polystyrene and textiles. This compound poses environmental challenges due to its persistence, propensity to accumulate in organisms, and adverse effects on health. In India, strict regulations are in place to control HBCD production, use, and import. However, the lack of easily accessible stockpile data on HBCD can be attributed to the absence of indigenous manufacturing in India. Research data of bioaccumulation indicates the potential of HBCD to accumulate in plants. An analysis comparing estimated daily intakes (EDIs) with threshold reference values (TRVs) demonstrated that the ingestion of this brominated flame retardant (BFR) through food consumption poses low health risks. Recommendations include continuous regulation, alternative flame retardants, robust monitoring, risk assessments, education, and global cooperation. Effective management of HBCD is vital to safeguard both the environment and public health.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe, Md. Shahbaz

Tetra-, Penta-, Hexa-, and Heptabromodiphenyl Ethers

Abstract

This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the environmental and health implications of a special group of chemicals classified as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), focusing mainly on tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and heptabromodiphenyl ethers. It explores the historical production and stockpiles of these compounds, highlighting their significant persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and involvement in food web biomagnification. Special attention is given to the Indian context, where data on production, stockpiles along with toxicological data remain scarce. This chapter further delves into the regulatory landscape, emphasizing national status on hexabromodiphenyl and heptabromodiphenyl ether along with the scope and exemptions to use these chemicals for scientific purposes. Human exposure pathways are thoroughly examined, taking weight of evidence-based data of different routes of exposure via food, product use, indoor air, and dust. The work also discusses transfer potentials of these compounds from mothers to infants potentially affecting early development.

Kanchan Kumari, Md. Shahbaz

Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD)

Abstract

Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) is a synthetic halogenated aliphatic compound that contains chlorinated hydrocarbons. Its widespread environmental presence could be attributed to process of chemical production and emission from industrial activities and waste treatments where HCBD is unintentionally produced. Considering its toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and long-range transport abilities, Stockholm Convention listed HCBD in 2015 as POPs under Annex A and in 2017; it was further listed in Annex C for unintentional formation and emission control. This chapter summarizes HCBD’s main characteristics, formation pathways and sources, occurrence in various environmental compartments, and various exposure risks and related ecological effects. Many animal studies have proven that this toxic compound damages the liver and kidney, raising cancer concerns. Aquatic organisms can bioaccumulate HCBD, affecting higher trophic level creatures. Controlling unintentional emissions by using Best Available Techniques (BAT) and implementing remediation measures by implementing Best Environmental Practices (BEP) reduces HCBD contamination. Understanding hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) behavior, fate, and toxicology promotes environmental stewardship and protects people and ecosystems. Research attention is needed in studying the environmental risks associated with contamination of HCBD with other environmental pollutants.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe

Penta-Chlorobenzene (PeCB)

Abstract

Penta-Chlorobenzene (PeCB) belongs to the Chlorobenzene compounds, and is a chlorinated derivative of benzene group specifically the Penta-Chlorobenzene subgroup. PeCB is known for its persistence, bio-accumulation, and long-range transport therefore designated as Persistent organic pollutants (POPs). PeCB falls within the Chlorobenzene family due to chlorine atoms replacing hydrogen in the benzene ring. While less toxic for humans, PeCB raises aquatic ecosystem concerns. Historically, PeCB was used in industries for production of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dyestuffs, fungicides, and flame-retardants. It has also been used as a chemical intermediary, notably in quintozene synthesis. PeCB is also produced unintentionally during combustion, thermal and industrial processes, or present as impurities. Due to its high persistence and bio-accumulative properties, it is  highly toxic to aquatic life. PeCB’s technical traits reveal a hexagonal Penta-Chlorobenzene ring and physical properties like melting points. Once a pesticide and wood preserver, regulations stemmed from health and environmental risks as PeCB’s tendency to accumulate in organisms’ fat yields health issues. Regulations of these particular toxicants majorly target production, signaling responsible and environmentally sound practices.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe, Md. Shahbaz

Pentachlorophenol (PCP): Its Salts and Esters

Abstract

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is the most toxic compound of the chlorophenols family tested yet and falls under the category of Persistent Organic Compound. In the seventh Conference of Parties (COP) meeting held during 4–15 May 2015, the chemical Pentachlorophenol was added to the POPs list along with two other chemicals Polychlorinated Naphthalene and Hexachlorobutadiene. India has also banned PCP and its salts from production, import and further, Central Insecticides Board and Registration (CIBR) have already banned its use in agriculture in 1998. Several scientific studies have reported detection of PCP and its metabolites in different environmental matrix, namely, air, soil, water and its sediments. The routes of exposure established in human beings is through foul air, contaminated water, food or through dermal contact to PCP-coated products. Although, due to restricted use chances of exposure lessen but occupational exposure at manufacturing units cannot be denied. Significant concentrations of PCP have been detected in umbilical cord, spinal cord, blood plasma and serum in communities of different age group and the details of various related aspects have been dealt in detail in this chapter.

Kanchan Kumari, Rachna Jain

Perfluorooctane Sulphonic Acid (PFOS), Its Salts, and Perfluorooctane Sulphonyl Fluoride (PFOS-F)

Abstract

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a representative compound of perfluorinated chemicals known for its exceptional properties, widely used in various industries. In 2009, the Stockholm Convention listed perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (PFOS), its salts, and perfluorooctane sulphonyl fluoride (PFOSF) under Annex B. They are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) reported to accumulate in organisms and exhibit toxic effects on plants and animals. This chapter gives technical details, usage status, and relevant scientific research on PFOS and PFOSF in India. International data highlights of PFOS’s bioaccumulation, toxicity, and prevalence have also been included in this study for different countries. This chapter emphasizes the need for effective PFOS management strategies and discusses various scientific solutions for PFOS treatment. Despite alternatives, the phase wise implementation of replacements remains a challenge, especially in developing countries.

Kanchan Kumari, Md Shahbaz

Polychlorinated Naphthalenes (PCNs)

Abstract

Polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that have sparked broad concern due to their extensive dispersion, long-term environmental persistence, and potential harm to human health and ecosystems. PCNs are produced unintentionally via various industrial processes. They are polychlorinated aromatic compounds with a strong resilience to degradation, allowing for long-distance transport across air, water, and biota. As a rapidly industrializing country, India confronts difficulties in limiting the flow of hazardous chemicals into the environment. PCNs have been found in a variety of environmental compartments around the country as an accidental result of some industrial activities. Waste incineration, heat processes, chemical manufacture, and accidental emissions from metal processing companies are among the sources of PCNs in India. Thus, this chapter presents a thorough examination of the origins, distribution, environmental destiny, toxicity, and regulatory measures connected with PCNs both internationally and in India.

Kanchan Kumari, Shaheen Akhtar, Piyush Mohapatra

Endosulfan

Abstract

Endosulfan used as insecticides threatens human health and a wide spectrum of aquatic and terrestrial species, according to comprehensive research. With two isomeric configurations as α and β-endosulfan has a significant degree of persistence in several environmental compartments, such as the atmosphere, sediments, and water, among other relevant compartments. Endosulfan has been well acknowledged for its adverse impact on human health and has been empirically shown to cause deleterious effects on a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial organisms. In order to reduce health concerns from endosulfan-contaminated aquatic creatures and water, US Environmental Protection Agency established the ambient water criteria as 74 μg/L. There are several research-based evidences claiming respiratory difficulties, gastrointestinal discomfort such nausea and vomiting along with neurological and developmental abnormalities as a function of endosulfan exposure in humans. Endosulfan is hazardous to aquatic life, bees, and birds as well. Water and soil contamination due to the substance’s long-term persistence and bioaccumulation across the food chain may harm higher trophic levels. India produced and used 4500 metric tonnes of endosulfan between 1920 and 2012. This chapter deals with this organochlorine pesticide describing its status of usage nationally and at global level with its adverse effects on human and environmental health and various regulations that have been posed for environmentally sound management of this harmful chemical.

Kanchan Kumari, Deepak Marathe

Decabromodiphenyl Ether (decaBDE)

Abstract

Decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE), a member of the Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ether family (PBDEs), is a highly persistent flame retardant known for its environmental persistence and potential health risks. With no known natural occurrence, decaBDE was synthesized commercially as highly brominated flame retardants additive to reduce the risk of fire in various consumer products; plastic and textile industry being the major users. DecaBDE debrominates into lower brominated diphenyl ethers and these congeners are more toxic, bio-accumulative, and persistent in nature. This chapter provides an overview of decaBDE, its technical details, usage, and regulatory status at national and global level. It highlights its global presence, adverse effects on health and the environment, and management measures. The study emphasizes the need for strict regulations and safer alternatives to mitigate the impact of decaBDE.

Kanchan Kumari

Short-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (SCCPs)

Abstract

This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), a complex group of chemicals that are extensively utilized in many industrial applications. A detailed analysis of the technical, physical, and chemical properties of SCCPs have been presented, as well as an extensive examination of their wide-ranging utilization across many industries. Significant importance is attributed to the evaluation of their environmental resilience and potential to accumulate in living organisms, hence highlighting concerns regarding their impact on ecosystems and human health. This study investigates the behaviour of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), specifically focused on the detection and quantification of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), in various environmental matrices. The research also explores the identification and measurement of SCCPs. This study delves into the regulatory measures and international accords that have been put in a place to govern the manufacturing and consumption of SCCPs. Furthermore, the chapter explores potential alternatives to SCCPs in industrial processes and analyses the challenges associated with their discontinuance. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and enterprises seeking to gain a comprehensive understanding of the significance of SCCPs and its implications for sustainable chemistry and environmental well-being.

Kanchan Kumari, Karthik Raghunathan

Backmatter