Introduction
A Human Empowerment Framework of Prosociality in Business
The Positive Influence of Human Empowerment on Prosociality in Business
First Condition: The Abundance of Action Resources
Second Condition: The Abundance of Emancipative Values
First, the emphasis on equal opportunities inherent in emancipative values comes with an internalization of humanitarian norms; these norms make people sensitive to social justice and more easily upset about its incidence. Second, emancipative values involve an appreciation of human self-expression; accordingly, the voicing of shared concerns becomes itself a value thus a source of satisfaction. (Welzel 2013, p. 47)
Third Condition: The Abundance of Social Movement Activity
Fourth Condition: The Abundance of Civic Entitlements
The Interplay of Human Empowerment, Gender, and Prosociality in Business
Research Method
Data Collection
Measures
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
First Framework Component: Action Resources
Second Framework Component: Emancipative Values
Third Framework Component: Social Movement Activity
Fourth Framework Component: Civic Entitlements
Control Variables
Data Analysis
Results
Variable |
N
| Mean | SD | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Social value creation goals | 15,504 | 20.810 | 18.960 | 0 | 100 |
Female | 15,504 | 0.384 | 0.486 | 0 | 1 |
Age | 15,504 | 40.905 | 11.867 | 18 | 64 |
Household income | 15,504 | 1.367 | 0.764 | 0 | 2 |
Education | 15,504 | 1.937 | 1.074 | 0 | 4 |
Household size | 15,504 | 3.508 | 1.255 | 1 | 5 |
Start-up skills | 15,504 | 0.838 | 0.368 | 0 | 1 |
Fear of failure | 15,504 | 0.287 | 0.453 | 0 | 1 |
Knows entrepreneur | 15,504 | 0.579 | 0.494 | 0 | 1 |
Nascent entrepreneur | 15,504 | 0.299 | 0.458 | 0 | 1 |
Human empowerment | 43 | 0.522 | 0.151 | 0.226 | 0.770 |
Action resources | 43 | 0.779 | 0.114 | 0.458 | 0.937 |
Emancipative values | 43 | 0.465 | 0.108 | 0.216 | 0.723 |
Social movement activity | 43 | 0.295 | 0.126 | 0.059 | 0.520 |
Civic entitlements | 43 | 0.548 | 0.318 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Social value creation goals | 1 | |||||||||||||
2. Female | 0.04* | 1 | ||||||||||||
3. Age | 0.03* | – 0.05* | 1 | |||||||||||
4. Household income | 0.01 | – 0.10* | 0.03* | 1 | ||||||||||
5. Education | 0.16* | – 0.05* | 0.02 | 0.29* | 1 | |||||||||
6. Household size | – 0.09* | 0.02 | – 0.19* | 0.05* | – 0.17* | 1 | ||||||||
7. Start-up skills | 0.00 | – 0.06* | – 0.01 | 0.09* | 0.09* | – 0.01 | 1 | |||||||
8. Fear of failure | – 0.04* | 0.05* | – 0.01 | – 0.04* | – 0.05* | 0.02 | – 0.14* | 1 | ||||||
9. Knows entrepreneur | 0.01 | – 0.06* | – 0.16* | 0.09* | 0.07* | 0.02* | 0.12* | – 0.03* | 1 | |||||
10. Nascent entrepreneur | 0.05* | 0.01 | – 0.26* | – 0.01 | 0.06* | 0.08* | 0.05* | – 0.01 | 0.13* | 1 | ||||
11. Human empowerment | 0.17* | – 0.05* | 0.28* | 0.15* | 0.40* | – 0.31* | 0.09* | – 0.03* | – 0.07* | – 0.17* | 1 | |||
12. Action resources | 0.18* | – 0.07* | 0.28* | 0.20* | 0.45* | – 0.30* | 0.05* | – 0.03* | – 0.06* | – 0.18* | 0.89* | 1 | ||
13. Emancipative values | 0.17* | – 0.03* | 0.27* | 0.15* | 0.35* | – 0.31* | 0.09* | – 0.04* | – 0.06* | – 0.20* | 0.94* | 0.86* | 1 | |
14. Social movement activity | 0.15* | – 0.02 | 0.21* | 0.04* | 0.29* | – 0.27* | 0.06* | – 0.02 | – 0.07* | – 0.18* | 0.79* | 0.60* | 0.75* | 1 |
15. Civic entitlements | 0.14* | – 0.05* | 0.25* | 0.15* | 0.36* | – 0.27* | 0.10* | – 0.03* | – 0.07* | – 0.12* | 0.97* | 0.82* | 0.87* | 0.67* |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 21.351*** | 21.280*** | 21.139*** | 21.366*** | 21.361*** | 21.318*** |
(1.048) | (0.953) | (0.990) | (0.965) | (0.957) | (0.982) | |
Individual-level effects | ||||||
Female | 1.159*** | 1.156*** | 1.159*** | 1.155*** | 1.157*** | 1.157*** |
(0.269) | (0.269) | (0.269) | (0.269) | (0.268) | (0.269) | |
Age | 0.043 | 0.029 | 0.032 | 0.031 | 0.033 | 0.032 |
(0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | |
Household income | – 0.328** | – 0.329** | – 0.329** | – 0.329** | – 0.326** | – 0.329** |
(0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | |
Education | 1.340*** | 1.313*** | 1.315*** | 1.321*** | 1.321*** | 1.322*** |
(0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | |
Household size | – 0.410*** | – 0.391** | – 0.397** | – 0.393** | – 0.394** | – 0.396** |
(0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | |
Start-up skills | – 0.208 | – 0.208 | – 0.207 | – 0.209 | – 0.208 | – 0.209 |
(0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | |
Fear of failure | – 0.347** | – 0.347** | – 0.348** | – 0.346** | – 0.348** | – 0.347** |
(0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | |
Knows entrepreneur | 0.121 | 0.123 | 0.122 | 0.122 | 0.123 | 0.123 |
(0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | |
Nascent entrepreneur | 1.351*** | 1.363*** | 1.360*** | 1.361*** | 1.361*** | 1.358*** |
(0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | |
Country-level effects | ||||||
Human empowerment | 3.225*** | |||||
(1.091) | ||||||
Action resources | 2.523** | |||||
(1.117) | ||||||
Emancipative values | 2.656*** | |||||
(0.977) | ||||||
Social movement activity | 2.608*** | |||||
(0.898) | ||||||
Civic entitlements | 2.514** | |||||
(1.022) | ||||||
ICC | 0.127 | 0.107 | 0.114 | 0.109 | 0.108 | 0.113 |
Individual-level variance | 311.95*** | 311.95*** | 311.96*** | 311.95*** | 311.95*** | 311.95*** |
Country-level variance | 45.48*** | 37.23*** | 39.98*** | 38.27*** | 37.63*** | 39.68*** |
Log likelihood | – 66616.1 | – 66612.2 | – 66613.7 | – 66612.7 | – 66612.3 | – 66613.3 |
AIC | 133258.2 | 133252.3 | 133255.5 | 133253.5 | 133252.5 | 133254.6 |
BIC | 133357.7 | 133359.4 | 133362.6 | 133360.5 | 133359.6 | 133361.7 |
LR test vs. linear model | 1422.1*** | 1170.4*** | 1181.2*** | 1174.0*** | 1236.5*** | 1304.3*** |
Model 7 | Model 8 | Model 9 | Model 10 | Model 11 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 21.268*** | 21.142*** | 21.345*** | 21.347*** | 21.312*** |
(0.949) | (0.987) | (0.961) | (0.956) | (0.979) | |
Individual-level effects | |||||
Female | 1.120*** | 1.117*** | 1.131*** | 1.124*** | 1.130*** |
(0.219) | (0.230) | (0.227) | (0.216) | (0.239) | |
Age | 0.023 | 0.025 | 0.027 | 0.030 | 0.028 |
(0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | |
Household income | – 0.326** | – 0.326** | – 0.328** | – 0.325** | – 0.326** |
(0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | (0.156) | |
Education | 1.301*** | 1.304*** | 1.311*** | 1.313*** | 1.316*** |
(0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | (0.176) | |
Household size | – 0.396** | – 0.403*** | – 0.396** | – 0.397** | – 0.400*** |
(0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | (0.155) | |
Start-up skills | – 0.196 | – 0.195 | – 0.200 | – 0.199 | – 0.201 |
(0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | |
Fear of failure | – 0.349** | – 0.350** | – 0.347** | – 0.350** | – 0.346** |
(0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | (0.146) | |
Knows entrepreneur | 0.129 | 0.124 | 0.130 | 0.125 | 0.128 |
(0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | (0.151) | |
Nascent entrepreneur | 1.368*** | 1.360*** | 1.367*** | 1.368*** | 1.362*** |
(0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | (0.162) | |
Country-level effects | |||||
Human empowerment | 3.288*** | ||||
(1.086) | |||||
Action resources | 2.546** | ||||
(1.113) | |||||
Emancipative values | 2.718*** | ||||
(0.974) | |||||
Social movement activity | 2.664*** | ||||
(0.897) | |||||
Civic entitlements | 2.553** | ||||
(1.019) | |||||
Cross-level effects | |||||
Female | |||||
× Human empowerment | 1.106*** | ||||
(0.244) | |||||
× Action resources | 0.948*** | ||||
(0.240) | |||||
× Emancipative values | 0.916*** | ||||
(0.226) | |||||
× Social movement activity | 0.945*** | ||||
(0.209) | |||||
× Civic entitlements | 0.768*** | ||||
(0.247) | |||||
ICC | 0.106 | 0.113 | 0.109 | 0.107 | 0.112 |
Individual-level variance | 311.94*** | 311.93*** | 311.94*** | 311.96*** | 311.96*** |
Country-level variance | 36.92*** | 39.71*** | 37.97*** | 37.53*** | 39.42*** |
Log likelihood | – 66604.0 | – 66607.1 | – 66605.9 | – 66604.4 | – 66609.1 |
AIC | 133238.0 | 133244.2 | 133241.8 | 133238.8 | 133248.2 |
BIC | 133352.7 | 133358.9 | 133356.5 | 133353.5 | 133362.9 |
LR test vs. linear model | 1148.5*** | 1167.1*** | 1150.3*** | 1215.4*** | 1291.1*** |