17. Structural Characterization

The aim of this chapter is to convey the basic principles of x-ray and electron diffraction, as used in the structural characterization of semiconductor heterostructures. A number of key concepts associated with radiation-material and particle-material interactions are introduced, with emphasis placed on the nature of the signal used for sample interrogation. Various modes of imaging and electron diffraction are then described, followed by a brief appraisal of the main techniques used to prepare electron-transparent membranes for TEM analysis. A number of case studies on electronic and photonic material systems are then presented in the context of a growth or device development program; these emphasize the need to use complementary techniques when characterizing a given heterostructure.