The Islamic conservative turn in Malaysia: impact and future trajectories

For the purposes of this paper, Islamism is defined as an ideology that seeks the implementation of an Islamic social, economic and political systems. The formation of an Islamic state is the ultimate objective of Islamists. Islamic groups are focused on changing Muslim societies by focusing on encouraging personal piety and largely focused on programs aimed at enhancing the role of Islam in the social realm. Islamic groups can be involved in political activities but have no interest in the establishment of an Islamic state.

Martin Van Bruinessen, “Contemporary Developments in Indonesian Islam and the Conservative Turn in the 21^st Century” in Martin Van Bruinessen (ed) Contemporary Development in Indonesian Islam: Explaining the Conservative Turn (Singapore: ISEAS, 2015).

The Salafis are a sect within Sunni Islam that claims to be inheritors of the Islamic traditions of the first generation of Muslims. Salafis believe that the Qur'an, the Hadith and the consensus (ijma) of approved scholarship as sources of jurisprudence. They reject the exclusively adherence to the Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali or the Hanafi schools of jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. Salafism is marked by its rigid, puritan interpretations of Islamic law and they view Sufis and Shiite Muslims as deviant.

Sufism, or Tasawwuf is Islamic mysticism. Sufis view tasawwuf as the esoteric dimensions of Islam which complements the external ritualistic practices of the religion embodied in the Islamic law See (Lings 1999, p. 15). Sufism Sufi orders (Tariqas) can be found in Sunni, Shia and other Islamic groups.

Among those who went were Abu Bakar Chik and Mustafa Ali.

The Wahhabi orientation could be traced to the scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), a fervent reader of the Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780-855), one of the founders of the four school of jurisprudence that are dominant in Sunni Islam. Al-Wahhab was perhaps best known for his role as the co-founder with Muhammad Ibn Saud (d 1765) of the first Saudi state giving religious legitimacy to Ibn Saud’s struggle to form a unitary state within the Arabian Peninsula in return for control over the Saudi religious establishment. In religious doctrine, Al-Wahhab was clear about what he was against. He argued that many Muslims at that time had deviated from the teachings of their pious ancestors (al-salaf al-salih) and had fallen to practices akin to the period of ignorance (jahiliyyah) referring to the period that precedes Islam. These practices such as the reverence of saints practiced by Sufis and the doctrines espoused by Shiite Islam ran counter to the teachings of Islam. However, Al-Wahhab was less clear about where he stood on theological issues. While in theory he was against the practice of taqlid (blind imitation) of past practices of traditional scholars and advocated for the establishment of ijtihad (open interpretation on religious matters), in practice he subscribed to the Hanbali School of jurisprudence which had a more literal reading of the Koran. In its political position, the Wahhabis were clearly loyal to the Saudi government.

Interview with Hassan Shukri on August 2004 in Gombak, Malaysia. Shukri was one of the ten students sent to Iraq.

Interview with Mufti of Perak and Melaka in July 2004.

Sudan and Pakistan are two of the most important examples of this co-option process.

Anwar Ibrahim, the second leader of ABIM had been a student activist who built his image as an Islamist. He was among the most vocal critics of the government and had an important reputation in foreign circles. He was constantly invited to address Muslim audiences abroad and was personally known to a number of personalities on the Islamic intellectual circuit. By 1979, he had participated actively in the Islamic Federation of Student Organizations (IIFSO), and other Muslim and international organisations.

Interview with Ahmad Awang on June 2004.

Interview with Nik Aziz, Hadi Awang and Harun Taib on July 2004.

Those who oppose the bill had argued that the bill is not comprehensive enough must cover more aspects of the hudud. There are however many government ulama who support the bill such as the Mufti of Perak and Selangor.

Interview with Dr. Ong Kian Ming, DAP strategist and Member of Parliament for Serdang on 24 February 2014.

For example, the chairperson of the Muslim Professionals Forum, Dr Mazeni Alwi welcomed the decision with a sense of relief and said that the Muslims would like to congratulate the judges who have exercised wisdom in their judgement. Likewise, the decision was welcomed by Nik Aziz Nik Mat, the spiritual leader of PAS.

Factors such as the internal divide within PAS in Kedah and the perceived underperformance of the Kedah state government led to PAS’ defeat. The author’s observation in Kedah during the campaign period suggested that the Shiite issue was particularly important one in Pendang. For more on this, see Mohamed Osman (2013).

For more on the Al-Maghrib, see http://​almaghrib.​org/​. For Al-Kauthar, see http://​www.​alkauthar.​org/​ and for Mercy Mission, see http://​www.​mercymissionworl​d.​org/​. The Mercy Mission is linked to Al-Kauthar. A number of scholars who are with Al-Kauthar are also active in Mercy Mission.

The Al-Maghrib is known by its local name Qabeelat Ikhlas. See https://​www.​facebook.​com/​pages/​Qabeelat-Ikhlas-AlMaghrib-Indonesia/​152868031492765

“22 - Kufr and Nifaq - Disbelief and Hypocrisy - Fundamentals of Faith - Yasir Qadhi.” Video uploaded to Youtube by DigitalMimbar (khalifahklothing) on 20 November 2008. Accessed at https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​mH0v_​UCRxNQ.

Interview with Shahzad Sultan, key leader of Naqhshabandi-Haqqani tariqah on 25 February 2014. The Sufi order is an offshoot of the historical Naqshabandi tariqah which is one of the largest Sufi brotherhood today. The order is headed by Sheikh Nazim Adil al-Haqqani who was born in Cyprus. His tariqah became famous after he started travelling to London by road on an annual basis resulting in large number of Muslims becoming his follower. In 1986, Sheikh Nazim travelled to Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore Several royal dignitaries including Sultan Hasanal Bolkiah and the Crown Prince of Perak, Raja Ashuman Shah had joined the tariqah

For instance, the tariqah has a massive online presence with numerous websites, videos of the Sheikhs giving lectures uploaded on Youtube and Facebook. Sheikh Hisham also allows for the bayah (oath of allegiance given to the head of the tariqah) to be given online

Hisham Kabbani was flown in by Hishamuddin Hussein to solemnise his son’s wedding in November 2013. The main mosque located within the compound of the presidential palace conducts the dzikr of the Naqshabandi-Haqqani every Thursday night.

Conversation with Datuk Syed Hamid Albar, Former Foreign Minister of Malaysia at the Mawlid and Haul of Sheikh Abdul Qadir Al-Jailani on March 2014 in Malaysia; Conversation with Arif Havas Oegroseno, Indonesian Ambassador to the European Union in June 2013.

Conversation with Sheikh Afifuddin Al-Jailani on March 2014 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Conversation with Hisham Kabbani on June 2013.

Following a raucous party election, the reformist group within PAS left the party to form the National Mandate Party (Parti Amanah Nasional, PAN). PAS has since left the opposition political coalition

JATI was formed by former PAS Selangor chief, Dr Hassan Ali following his sacking from PAS. For more on JATI, see http://​www.​jatimalaysia.​org/​.

This was confirmed by Dr. Shamsuddin Moner, a YADIM official and UMNO leader at a meeting in Melaka on the 29 March 2014.

Interview with Kamaruzaman Mohamed, PAS Youth Chief in Federal Territories on 20 February 2014.