Taking turns on the same day
We first report the results of an analysis of turn taking during the same day. Such behavior is reflected in one of the parents dropping off a child at the day care, school or activity location and the other parent picking up that child later that day when the activity is completed. Before discussing the results of a multinomial logit model, conducted to analyze the prevalence of such turn taking behavior and its covariates, we report the frequency distribution of the occurrence of different kinds of escorting routines. Table
1 lists the frequencies of the different escorting options. Because either parent may be responsible for dropping off the child, we differentiate between mother–father (MF) and father-mother (FM) turn taking behavior. To assess the relative frequency of this behavior, in addition we identify cases where one of the parents is responsibility for both dropping off and picking up the child (‘MM’ and ‘FF’). In addition, we distinguished the patterns in which one of the parents either drops off or picks up the children, while the child either travels alone or is escorting by someone else for the either leg of the trip (‘Half F-half O/None’ and ‘Half M-half O/None’).
Table 1Frequencies of the different escorting options on the same day
% | 10.15 | 34.54 | 8.70 | 6.62 | 3.68 | 7.24 | 29.06 |
The results show that for our sample of dual-earner households, the option in which the mother both drops off and picks up her children is the highest (34.54%). This is not a surprise in the sense that an overwhelming number of prior studies have emphasized the gendered organization of childcare (e.g. Fyhri and Hjorthol
2009; Barker
2011; Ekert-Jaffé
2011; Scheiner and Holz-Rau
2012; Hjorthol and Vagane
2014 etc.). Next, across all trips, travelling alone/other options are most prevalent. As we will later, this percentage is relatively high because many older children are not escorted. Although each of the turn-taking strategies for the same day represents a small percentage, together they are responsible for almost one quarter of all trips of the children.
The results of the multinomial logit model are listed in Table
2. Because the estimated coefficients are difficult to interpret in terms of the probability that a particular escorting pattern will be observed, we also calculated the choice probabilities. These are listed in Table
3. The dependent variable is the probability of a particular escorting routine on a single day. The explanatory variables include working hours across parents/week, work status, household income, number of children in the household younger than 12, education level of the parents, the gender and age of the child and days of the week. All explanatory variables were effect-coded.
Table 2Effects of covariates on turn-taking behavior on the same day
Constant | | − 0.68642*** | 0.0005 | 0.45310*** | 0.0005 | − 1.06040*** | 0.0000 | − 1.69389*** | 0.0000 | − 1.75171*** | 0.0000 | − 1.83728*** | 0.0000 |
Working hours across parents | Father works longer | − 0.56020*** | 0.0000 | 0.16616 | 0.1233 | − 0.02851 | 0.8388 | 0.18212 | 0.3892 | 0.10698 | 0.5901 | 0.58670*** | 0.0011 |
Mother works longer | 0.34129** | 0.0410 | − 0.25927 | 0.1436 | 0.05511 | 0.8082 | − 0.54869 | 0.1463 | − 0.17102 | 0.5978 | − 0.38578 | 0.2064 |
Similar | 0.21891 | 0.1059 | 0.09311 | 0.4740 | − 0.0266 | 0.8734 | 0.36657 | 0.1115 | 0.06404 | 0.7896 | − 0.20092 | 0.3701 |
Work flexibility | Both not flexible | − 0.16599 | 0.1635 | 0.06988 | 0.4529 | 0.26522** | 0.0304 | 0.20812 | 0.1416 | 0.01775 | 0.9220 | 0.1397 | 0.2763 |
Father flexible, mother not | − 0.75335*** | 0.0000 | 0.53317*** | 0.0000 | − 0.23263 | 0.1090 | − 0.05906 | 0.7234 | 0.09344 | 0.6222 | 0.11358 | 0.4032 |
Mother flexible, father not | 0.59327*** | 0.0000 | − 1.10300*** | 0.0000 | − 0.00578 | 0.9717 | − 0.25504 | 0.2010 | 0.61922*** | 0.0023 | − 0.61366*** | 0.0022 |
Both flexible | 0.32607** | 0.0290 | 0.49995*** | 0.0000 | − 0.02681 | 0.8825 | 0.10598 | 0.6038 | − 0.73041** | 0.0186 | 0.36038** | 0.0274 |
Household income | ≤ 1400 Euro/month | − 1.08468** | 0.0206 | 0.0524 | 0.7924 | − 0.18224 | 0.6094 | 0.75582** | 0.0119 | 0.60645* | 0.0644 | − 0.42266 | 0.2582 |
1401–2800 Euro/month | 0.19936 | 0.4271 | − 0.01164 | 0.9367 | − 0.51670* | 0.0673 | − 1.05783*** | 0.0027 | − 0.32471 | 0.3000 | 0.02121 | 0.9271 |
2801–4200 Euro/month | 0.2521 | 0.1912 | − 0.00771 | 0.9398 | 0.11147 | 0.5179 | 0.06319 | 0.7231 | − 0.81221*** | 0.0001 | 0.32185** | 0.0500 |
> 4200 Euro/month | 0.63322*** | 0.0012 | − 0.03305 | 0.7651 | 0.58747*** | 0.0009 | 0.23882 | 0.2140 | 0.53047*** | 0.0071 | 0.0796 | 0.6566 |
Number of children ≤ 12 years | 1 | − 0.31660*** | 0.0097 | − 0.37310*** | 0.0000 | − 0.26353** | 0.0298 | − 0.40865*** | 0.0023 | − 0.09525 | 0.5494 | 0.18777 | 0.1604 |
2 | 0.23122** | 0.0287 | − 0.0968 | 0.2131 | − 0.12549 | 0.2380 | − 0.56673*** | 0.0000 | − 0.39032*** | 0.0069 | 0.18602 | 0.1306 |
> 2 | 0.08538 | 0.5871 | 0.4699*** | 0.0000 | 0.38902*** | 0.0091 | 0.97538*** | 0.0000 | 0.48557** | 0.0110 | − 0.37379* | 0.0524 |
Education level | Father higher than mother | 0.00384 | 0.9772 | − 0.45075*** | 0.0000 | − 0.28739* | 0.0512 | − 0.66253*** | 0.0004 | 0.15576 | 0.4230 | − 0.37507** | 0.0123 |
Mother higher than father | − 0.20443 | 0.1693 | 0.12749 | 0.2500 | − 0.35579** | 0.0403 | − 0.08939 | 0.6237 | − 0.95179*** | 0.0023 | − 0.37528** | 0.0411 |
Both primary/middle | − 0.23293* | 0.0963 | 0.12487 | 0.1848 | 0.13875 | 0.3189 | 0.56948*** | 0.0001 | 0.67694*** | 0.0004 | 0.13104 | 0.3278 |
Both higher education | 0.43352*** | 0.0005 | 0.19839** | 0.0444 | 0.50443*** | 0.0001 | 0.18244 | 0.2340 | 0.11909 | 0.5372 | 0.61931*** | 0.0000 |
Child’s gender | Boy | − 0.19500*** | 0.0071 | − 0.16543*** | 0.0027 | 0.06721 | 0.3844 | − 0.14697* | 0.0926 | − 0.05289 | 0.6097 | − 0.35916*** | 0.0000 |
Girl | 0.19500*** | 0.0071 | 0.16543*** | 0.0027 | − 0.06721 | 0.3844 | 0.14697* | 0.0926 | 0.05289 | 0.6097 | 0.35916*** | 0.0000 |
Child’s age | 0–4 years | 1.69167*** | 0.0000 | 1.77145*** | 0.0000 | 1.76750*** | 0.0000 | 2.65381*** | 0.0000 | 1.37067*** | 0.0000 | 0.79188*** | 0.0000 |
5–8 years | 0.0351 | 0.7595 | 0.34618*** | 0.0001 | 0.24937** | 0.0363 | 0.52242*** | 0.0028 | 0.35826** | 0.0181 | 0.44947*** | 0.0002 |
9–12 years | − 1.72677*** | 0.0000 | − 2.11763*** | 0.0000 | − 2.01687*** | 0.0000 | − 3.17623*** | 0.0000 | − 1.72893*** | 0.0000 | − 1.24135*** | 0.0000 |
Day of the week | Monday | 0.10231 | 0.4581 | − 0.01816 | 0.8672 | − 0.10825 | 0.4729 | 0.22059 | 0.1759 | − 0.17944 | 0.3987 | 0.05 | 0.7420 |
Tuesday | − 0.207 | 0.1538 | − 0.16613 | 0.1256 | − 0.07067 | 0.6283 | − 0.03665 | 0.8259 | 0.26677 | 0.1530 | − 0.04497 | 0.7661 |
Wednesday | 0.01067 | 0.9418 | 0.17750* | 0.0993 | 0.0395 | 0.7982 | − 0.1239 | 0.5099 | 0.06134 | 0.7705 | − 0.02609 | 0.8702 |
Thursday | 0.0788 | 0.5773 | 0.00517 | 0.9625 | 0.08365 | 0.5726 | 0.21455 | 0.2020 | − 0.19438 | 0.3762 | 0.1078 | 0.4767 |
Friday | 0.01522 | 0.9173 | 0.00162 | 0.9881 | 0.05577 | 0.7144 | − 0.27459 | 0.1534 | 0.04571 | 0.8233 | − 0.08674 | 0.5830 |
Table 3Probability of turn-taking behavior on the same day
Constant | | 0.1278 | 0.3993 | 0.0879 | 0.0467 | 0.0440 | 0.0404 | 0.2538 |
Working hours across parents/week | Father works longer | 0.0687 | 0.4442 | 0.0805 | 0.0527 | 0.0462 | 0.0685 | 0.2391 |
Mother works longer | 0.1941 | 0.3327 | 0.1003 | 0.0291 | 0.0401 | 0.0297 | 0.2741 |
Similar | 0.1467 | 0.4043 | 0.0790 | 0.0621 | 0.0433 | 0.0305 | 0.2341 |
Work status on a day | Both not flexible | 0.1027 | 0.4064 | 0.1088 | 0.0545 | 0.0425 | 0.0441 | 0.2409 |
Father flexible, mother not | 0.0501 | 0.5663 | 0.0580 | 0.0366 | 0.0402 | 0.0377 | 0.2112 |
Mother flexible, father not | 0.2737 | 0.1569 | 0.1035 | 0.0428 | 0.0968 | 0.0259 | 0.3004 |
Both flexible | 0.1356 | 0.5042 | 0.0655 | 0.0397 | 0.0162 | 0.0444 | 0.1944 |
Household income | ≤ 1400 Euro/month | 0.0433 | 0.4218 | 0.0734 | 0.0996 | 0.0809 | 0.0266 | 0.2544 |
1401–2800 Euro/month | 0.1648 | 0.4171 | 0.0554 | 0.0171 | 0.0336 | 0.0436 | 0.2683 |
2801–4200 Euro/month | 0.1584 | 0.3818 | 0.0947 | 0.0479 | 0.0188 | 0.0537 | 0.2446 |
> 4200 Euro/month | 0.1978 | 0.3175 | 0.1300 | 0.0487 | 0.0615 | 0.0360 | 0.2086 |
Number of children ≤ 12 years | 1 | 0.1150 | 0.3398 | 0.0835 | 0.0383 | 0.0495 | 0.0603 | 0.3137 |
2 | 0.1678 | 0.3777 | 0.0808 | 0.0276 | 0.0311 | 0.0507 | 0.2645 |
> 2 | 0.1005 | 0.4614 | 0.0937 | 0.0894 | 0.0517 | 0.0201 | 0.1833 |
Education level | Father higher than mother | 0.1592 | 0.3158 | 0.0818 | 0.0299 | 0.0639 | 0.0345 | 0.3150 |
Mother higher than father | 0.1084 | 0.4722 | 0.0641 | 0.0444 | 0.0177 | 0.0289 | 0.2642 |
Both primary/middle | 0.0901 | 0.4026 | 0.0899 | 0.0734 | 0.0771 | 0.0410 | 0.2259 |
Both higher education | 0.1559 | 0.3852 | 0.1152 | 0.0443 | 0.0392 | 0.0594 | 0.2008 |
Child’s gender | Boy | 0.1166 | 0.3753 | 0.1043 | 0.0447 | 0.0463 | 0.0313 | 0.2815 |
Girl | 0.1385 | 0.4204 | 0.0733 | 0.0482 | 0.0414 | 0.0516 | 0.2265 |
Child’s age | 0–4 years | 0.1465 | 0.4958 | 0.1087 | 0.1400 | 0.0366 | 0.0188 | 0.0536 |
5–8 years | 0.1043 | 0.4450 | 0.0889 | 0.0620 | 0.0497 | 0.0499 | 0.2001 |
9–12 years | 0.0635 | 0.1343 | 0.0327 | 0.0054 | 0.0218 | 0.0327 | 0.7095 |
Day of the week | Monday | 0.1410 | 0.3906 | 0.0786 | 0.0579 | 0.0367 | 0.0423 | 0.2529 |
Tuesday | 0.1130 | 0.3680 | 0.0891 | 0.0489 | 0.0626 | 0.0421 | 0.2762 |
Wednesday | 0.1197 | 0.4421 | 0.0848 | 0.0382 | 0.0434 | 0.0365 | 0.2353 |
Thursday | 0.1345 | 0.3904 | 0.0930 | 0.0562 | 0.0353 | 0.0438 | 0.2469 |
Friday | 0.1304 | 0.4019 | 0.0934 | 0.0356 | 0.0463 | 0.0372 | 0.2551 |
The explained variance of the logistic regression is substantial as indicated by a Pseudo R-squared value of 0.19. The estimated constants of the various escorting options again evidence that, ceteris paribus, women dropping off and picking up their children is most prevalent. It represents almost 40% of all escorting. In around 25% of the trips of the children, they travel either alone or are accompanied by a person other than one of the parents. Next, fathers only take the next largest share of daily escorting. The constants thus suggest that turn taking behavior is relatively infrequent. The share of the FM patterns is almost double the share of the reverse MF pattern. In turn this is roughly the same as the importance of patterns in which either the drop off or the pick-up part does not involve a parent.
Tables
2 and
3 provide the estimation results for all escorting patterns and all covariates. Because the present study concerns the prevalence and covariates of turn-taking behavior, we limit our discussion to these escorting options. Focusing on the effect of the parents’ working hours, none of the estimated effects is significant at the conventional 5% probability level. The probability of the FM and MF pattern is slightly higher if the parent works longer hours. It suggests that the parent working less hours tends to pick up the child. This seems intuitive in that the parent who works less has more flexibility. Synchronizing schedules and less stress coping with uncertainty then seems to lead to this turn-taking behavior.
As for work schedule flexibility, among the estimates associated with the FM patterns, only the estimate of the case, in which the work schedules of both parents are not flexible is positive and significant. In this case, the probability of turn taking behavior is higher, as is the probability that children travel alone or are escorting by non-parents. In this case, the probability of the FM patterns is almost twice as high as the probability of the MF pattern, suggesting that when both parents’ work schedules are not flexible, the father tends to bring the child to the day care, school or activity location and the mother picks up the children. Interestingly, and in line with the dominance of gender in escorting, once the mother has more flexibility than the father, the probabilities of both patterns is reduced, and they appear more equally. Vice versa, however, if the father has more flexibility, it is not equally reflected in more escorting. Under these circumstances, the probability that the child travels alone or is escorted by people other than the parents increases significantly, the probability of the FM and MF patterns if hardly different from the situation that none of the parents have a flexible work schedule. In other words, flexibility in the father’s schedules hardly affects the escorting tendency and responsibility of the mother. Inviting others to escort the children solves the fact it is more difficult for the father to escort the children.
Table
2 also shows that three of the four effects for the lower income categories are significant. The probability of engaging in turn taking behavior is higher when either the household income belongs to the lower category or the higher. However, the probabilities of the two different sequences are dramatically different. For households with a lower income, the MF pattern is more prevalent than for households with a higher income. Considering the finding that fathers take a larger share of escorting in higher income households, the result suggests that overall gender differences are somewhat smaller in these households, but at the same time the pattern in which fathers drop off the child and mothers pick them up again is more distinct for this household category.
All effects on the turn taking strategies for one or two children households are negative, and three out of the four are significant. As the number of children younger than 12 years of age increases, the percentage traveling independently or being escorting by someone other than one of the parents drops significantly. In part, this finding reflects a confounding, but watered-down effect of the age of the children. If the household has less than 3 children, the FM patterns clearly dominates the MF pattern and their probabilities of occurrence is virtually the same if the household has one child or has two children. In case of more than 2 children, the extra help of the father is clearly needed. However, subtle and highly interesting shifts can be observed. The share of mothers taking only responsibility for escorting increases. In addition, independent travel of the children and escorting by non-parents increases. Simultaneously, the role of the father shifts in that the share of trips where the both drop off and pick up the child is reduced, while the share of FM patters increases a little.
The estimated effects of the education levels of the patterns indicate that if both parents have a high education, the FM routine is further accentuated. The probability of observing this escorting routine is strongly affected by the other categories for education. Vice versa, and in line with earlier results, if both parents have lower or middle level education, the probability of the MF routine slightly increases.
The gender of the child does not affect the probability of the MF pattern. However, the reverse FM pattern in which the father drops off the child is more pertinent when the child is a boy. This may point at a gender-match effect, particularly for fathers, who seem to prefer escorting their sons slightly to their daughters.
The estimated effects and calculated probabilities for the child’s age are also highly interesting. All effects for the two turn taking strategies are significant for the two lowest age categories. Once the child becomes older than 9, the probability of not being escorted by one of the parents increases to approximately 71%. At this age, the role of the father drops rapidly. In 6% of the cases, they remain responsible for all daily escorting; the probability of the FM routine is reduced to about 3%, and the share of the MF pattern is smaller than 1%.
Finally, as for days of the week, differences are very small. None of the estimated effects on the turn taking strategies are significant. The share of the MF patterns is somewhat reduced on Wednesdays and Fridays. This may reflect the fact that schools tend to be closed on Wednesday afternoons, while women, who work more part-time tend not to work on Fridays. Depending on the distribution of working days of observation across weekdays, the percentage of women work on Wednesday is the lowest, followed by Friday.
Taking turns on different days
Another way of coping with the balancing act of job, household, children and personal time is that one of the parents is released from the responsibility of escorting for a full day and the other parent (or maybe someone else) does all the escorting on that day. On another day, these roles and tasks are reversed. The potential advantage of this strategy is that it reliefs a parent, at least physically, from the effort that comes with escorting. In turn, it means this parent is not as much faced with the work schedule, and temporal and institutional constraints in participating and scheduling discretionary activities and travel. What is more, the parent likely can organize the day into larger blocks of consecutive time to participate in activities, should not worry about being at locations at certain times and the associated uncertainty, and is likely less hampered by fragmentation of time.
To analyze the prevalence of this coping strategy and the effects of covariates, a multinomial logit mode was estimated. The dependent variable consists of a set of decision strategies, the explanatory variables of a set of socio-demographic, child characteristics and job conditions that in part may affect the work schedule. The following coping strategies were distinguished. In addition to parents’ turn turning across different days of the week, we differentiated between one of the parents taking full and only responsibility, turn taking between one of the parents and someone else, task allocation within the same day, combination of escorting and independent travel during the same day and independent travel or escorting by someone other than the parents. Because we are interested in work schedule and turn taking behavior, we selected from the data only the weekday when at least one of the parents worked.
Results are listed in Tables
4 and
5. The model describes the data well as indicated by the Pseudo R-squared value of 0.14. The estimated constants for the model indicate that both task allocation and turn taking behavior are less chosen options than the other travel options we identified. Turn taking is slightly less popular than task allocation within the same day (8.9 vs. 9.1%). The probability of turn taking across different days of the week substantially increases if the mother works more hours than the father. It suggests that only once the difficulty of juggling with the many tasks becomes too complicated or too much for mothers to handle, fathers tend to step in. The probabilities indicate that under such circumstances, parents first try to involve another person to escort the child. In contrast, if fathers work longer, this strategy is chosen slightly less.
Table 4Effects of covariates on turn-taking behavior across days of the week
Constant | 0.23281 | 0.6298 | − 0.21413 | 0.6891 | 0.3206 | 0.5015 | − 0.19414 | 0.7025 | 1.32039*** | 0.0021 |
Working hours across parents/week | Father works longer | 0.06026 | 0.8186 | − 0.15358 | 0.6340 | 0.09814 | 0.7208 | 0.18788 | 0.4973 | 0.28413 | 0.2473 |
Mother works longer | − 0.08854 | 0.8263 | 0.15326 | 0.7551 | 0.18578 | 0.6403 | − 0.0338 | 0.9374 | − 0.36043 | 0.3401 |
Similar | 0.02828 | 0.9324 | 0.00032 | 0.9994 | − 0.28392 | 0.4390 | − 0.15408 | 0.6582 | 0.0763 | 0.8066 |
Household income | ≤ 1400 Euro/month | − 0.45403 | 0.4694 | 0.01296 | 0.9862 | − 0.34215 | 0.6216 | − 0.71049 | 0.3385 | 0.26864 | 0.6095 |
1401–2800 Euro/month | 0.13798 | 0.7481 | − 0.33253 | 0.5576 | − 0.18711 | 0.7007 | − 0.3932 | 0.4354 | − 0.54652 | 0.1908 |
2801–4200 Euro/month | − 0.11546 | 0.7098 | 0.26254 | 0.4828 | − 0.04214 | 0.9028 | 0.3987 | 0.2470 | 0.00848 | 0.9756 |
> 4200 Euro/month | 0.43151 | 0.2061 | 0.05703 | 0.8935 | 0.5714 | 0.1198 | 0.70499 | 0.0601 | 0.2694 | 0.3807 |
Number of children ≤ 12 years | 1 | 0.39077 | 0.3610 | − 0.68408 | 0.1332 | − 0.48646 | 0.2581 | − 0.11272 | 0.7851 | − 0.71047* | 0.0716 |
2 | − 0.50985 | 0.2308 | − 0.32647 | 0.4523 | − 0.53422 | 0.2067 | − 0.50098 | 0.2182 | − 0.51345 | 0.1850 |
> 2 | 0.11908 | 0.8772 | 1.01055 | 0.1854 | 1.02068 | 0.1755 | 0.6137 | 0.4015 | 1.22392* | 0.0824 |
Education level | Father higher than mother | − 0.57244* | 0.0692 | − 0.32358 | 0.3942 | − 0.1783 | 0.5703 | − 0.65028** | 0.0461 | − 0.37621 | 0.1733 |
Mother higher than mother | 0.34738 | 0.3008 | 0.30318 | 0.4442 | 0.25057 | 0.4850 | 0.23155 | 0.5050 | − 0.0245 | 0.9390 |
Both primary/middle | 0.49973* | 0.0782 | 0.15218 | 0.6656 | 0.19393 | 0.5311 | 0.36796 | 0.2120 | 0.29312 | 0.2654 |
Both high | − 0.27467 | 0.3531 | − 0.13178 | 0.7146 | − 0.2662 | 0.4108 | 0.05077 | 0.8636 | 0.10759 | 0.6910 |
Youngest Child’s gender | Boy | − 0.21056 | 0.2092 | − 0.46333** | 0.0241 | − 0.36667** | 0.0407 | − 0.44010** | 0.0101 | − 0.43416*** | 0.0046 |
Girl | 0.21056 | 0.2092 | 0.46333** | 0.0241 | 0.36667** | 0.0407 | 0.44010** | 0.0101 | 0.43416*** | 0.0046 |
Youngest Child’s age | 0–4 years | 1.42094*** | 0.0000 | 1.40614*** | 0.0000 | 0.21154 | 0.4613 | 1.80099*** | 0.0000 | 0.58885** | 0.0146 |
5–8 years | 0.64293** | 0.0292 | 0.63945* | 0.0951 | 0.49847 | 0.1074 | 0.51853 | 0.1107 | 0.57969** | 0.0300 |
9–12 years | − 2.06387*** | 0.0000 | − 2.04559*** | 0.0000 | − 0.71001*** | 0.0085 | − 2.31952*** | 0.0000 | − 1.16854*** | 0.0000 |
Table 5Probability of turn-taking behavior across days of the week
Constant | | 0.1400 | 0.0895 | 0.1528 | 0.0913 | 0.4154 | 0.1109 |
Working hours across parents/week | Father works longer | 0.1274 | 0.0658 | 0.1445 | 0.0944 | 0.4729 | 0.0950 |
Mother works longer | 0.1415 | 0.1153 | 0.2033 | 0.0975 | 0.3199 | 0.1225 |
Similar | 0.1460 | 0.0908 | 0.1167 | 0.0794 | 0.4546 | 0.1125 |
Household income | ≤ 1400 Euro/month | 0.0900 | 0.0919 | 0.1099 | 0.0455 | 0.5503 | 0.1123 |
1401–2800 Euro/month | 0.2101 | 0.0840 | 0.1658 | 0.0806 | 0.3145 | 0.1450 |
2801–4200 Euro/month | 0.1184 | 0.1105 | 0.1391 | 0.1292 | 0.3976 | 0.1053 |
> 4200 Euro/month | 0.1517 | 0.0667 | 0.1905 | 0.1301 | 0.3828 | 0.0781 |
Number of children ≤ 12 years | 1 | 0.2786 | 0.0608 | 0.1265 | 0.1099 | 0.2748 | 0.1493 |
2 | 0.1287 | 0.0989 | 0.1372 | 0.0847 | 0.3806 | 0.1698 |
> 2 | 0.0626 | 0.0976 | 0.1683 | 0.0670 | 0.5605 | 0.0440 |
Education level | Father higher than mother | 0.1104 | 0.0906 | 0.1788 | 0.0666 | 0.3986 | 0.1550 |
Mother higher than mother | 0.1727 | 0.1057 | 0.1712 | 0.1004 | 0.3533 | 0.0967 |
Both primary/middle | 0.1748 | 0.0790 | 0.1405 | 0.1000 | 0.4218 | 0.0840 |
Both high | 0.1095 | 0.0808 | 0.1205 | 0.0989 | 0.4761 | 0.1142 |
Child’s gender | Boy | 0.1587 | 0.0788 | 0.1482 | 0.0823 | 0.3766 | 0.1552 |
Girl | 0.1209 | 0.0995 | 0.1543 | 0.0992 | 0.4485 | 0.0776 |
Child’s age | 0–4 years | 0.2277 | 0.1435 | 0.0742 | 0.2172 | 0.2939 | 0.0436 |
5–8 years | 0.1572 | 0.1002 | 0.1486 | 0.0906 | 0.4379 | 0.0655 |
9–12 years | 0.0503 | 0.0328 | 0.2126 | 0.0254 | 0.3652 | 0.3138 |
Household income does not seem to affect the probability of parents adopting turn taking across different days of the week much. Only for the highest household income category, the result shows that parents tend to adopt turn taking bur rather than involving the other parent another person is asked to take care of escorting the child.
The effect of the number of children in the household seems consistent with this tendency. If the number of children exceeds two, the probability of turn-taking and releasing one parent from the obligations of escorting increases. However, the probability of the two parents taking turns is hardly affected. Rather, another person is involved to free the parents from escorting.
Education levels of the parents do not show any significant effect. The probability of turn taking behavior for different education levels also does not exhibit a clear pattern. Similarly, the gender of the youngest child does not seem to significantly influence turn-taking behavior on balance, even though Table
4 shows that the effect for boys is significant. There is some evidence that boys are more allowed to travel independently.
Finally, an interesting effect is observed for the age of the child. The probability of parents turn taking behavior across days of the week systematically decreases with increasing age of the child. In contrast, it increases for those types of turn taking that involve another person. Because this category includes independent child travel, these effects thus seem to indicate that independent travel rapidly increases if the child becomes older.