1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
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Main Research Question. What are the factors affecting students' acceptance of 3DVW?
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RQ1. What factors have a positive effect on the student acceptance of 3DVW?
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RQ2. What factors have a negative effect on the student acceptance of 3DVW?
3 Research Design
3.1 Collecting Data
3.1.1 Virtual Focus Group
3.1.2 Open-ended Question
3.2 Analysing Data
4 Research Findings
4.1 Descriptive Statistics
Total number of students enrolled | Participated students | Female participants | Male participants | |
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Virtual focus group | 250 | 124 | 45 | 79 |
Open-ended question | 250 | 121 | 51 | 70 |
4.2 Categories and the Construct Definitions
4.2.1 Ease of Use
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Perceived ease of use | The degree to which students believe that using the 3DVW in their education would be free of effort | Positive | 27 | “Second life is easy to use as it requires only basic computer knowledge and is fairly self-explanatory. Due the simplicity of the program, if training were needed it would be minimal.” “With easy to use features, Second Life allows students to spend time and thought on their responses to class discussions, developing their skills in critical thinking.” |
User friendliness | A characteristic of a 3DVW-based environment such that any student can use it without having extensive computer experience or training | Positive | 3 | “Second life, as an example, has a user friendly interface, is simple to use and set up, has good graphics and allows for the creation of your own individual avatar with a variety of attributes available.” |
4.2.2 Accessibility
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Ease of access | The degree of ease experienced by a student in having access to a 3DVW | Positive | 20 | “2nd Life is a good way to support the learning in this subject as it can be accessed virtually everywhere in the world.” “An advantage is that if you do have the Internet connection and second life software it is very easy to access and use.” |
Access flexibility | The ability of users to run 3DVW technology on various digital devices | Positive | 14 | “Nearly every home has access to some form of technology, usually a smart phone or a laptop. Making a virtual university accessible as long as you are connected to some form of Internet; now this would make studying easier for people who have busy lifestyles.” |
4.2.3 Infrastructure
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Hardware dependency | The extent to which the technology requires computer hardware for running | Negative | 34 | “Furthermore, SL software has technological requirements, and some students may not have computers that meet these requirements.” “Those who have poor access to technology are at disadvantage, they would s till have to go to third party places to access second life anyway, negating advantages.” |
Internet dependency | The extent to which the technology requires Internet access for running | Negative | 38 | “… many have found many difficulties with accessing second life due to poor internet communications” “A disadvantage is that if there is an issue with your internet or computer, you wouldn’t be able to attend the class” |
3DVW reliability | The probability of failure-free operation of the software for the duration of a normal class | Positive | 30 | “I think its poor for presenting information as it takes a long time to get onto the program as you need the viewer” “If the speed of second life was increased, then it would already make the program better” |
Data security | The protection of student data from accidental or intentional disclosure to unauthorised persons and from unauthorised modification or destruction | Positive | 6 | “There will always be a risk of hacking or viruses when working online, no matter how advanced it gets” “a disadvantage of the program is that if someone’s details were stolen, they could log on and cause harm” |
Communication flexibility | The degree to which students are able to communicate with others using 3DVWs | Positive | 59 | “The advantages of second life are that it is an easy way to interact with the tutor or students.” “The advantages of it has been that it is an easy way of communicating so that everyone doesn't have to be in the same room.” “Microphones can be used in the virtual classes, meaning that conversations will not have to be typed constantly and questions can be asked just by speaking.” |
4.2.4 Usefulness
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Perceived usefulness | The degree to which a student believes that using a 3DVW would enhance his or her performance in education | Positive | 27 | “3d virtual world technology would be advantageous for students’ educations whilst at university as it is a useful tool that offers many benefits to its users.” “…Second Life works well and is very beneficial for students” |
4.2.5 Attractiveness
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Visual attractiveness | The degree to which a person believes that a virtual environment is aesthetically pleasing to the eye | Positive | 19 | “The visualisation of the classroom produces the 3D virtual world and encourages students to actively participate.” “I found it more attractive than any other program used in education” |
4.2.6 Enjoyment
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Perceived enjoyment | The extent to which the activity of using 3DVW technology is perceived to be enjoyable for students | Positive | 60 | “The 3D virtual world of second life is a fun, exciting and interactive way of learning.” “I have enjoyed using second life. Having a different approach to learning is the best thing about it.” |
Perceived playfulness | The degree to which students believe that they could get intrinsic enjoyment while navigating their avatar in the virtual environment | Positive | 19 | “Virtual worlds can adapt to any situation you need when you try to perform an example to your employees and also role-play and operating simulated equipment for businesses.” “I find it actually more playful than in class during face to face” |
Perceived distraction | The degree to which students’ attention is being diverted away from the study | Negative | 28 | “A disadvantage of second life is its distracting. Because for example, all I want to do is fly around this island.” “I don't think 2nd life can properly hold a student’s attention because it is more or less a game.” |
4.2.7 Cost Efficiency
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Cost efficiency | The minimum level of economic resources which must be consumed to provide a desired level of educational service using 3DVW technology | Positive | 98 | “It would be cost effective for the university to run, as it does not cost much money to run and can accommodate for a large amount of students.” “3D Virtual Worlds represent a low cost, low labour promotional tool to help show prospective students what university life would be like.” “About being online from home, this eliminates travel and parking costs which is big contributing factor to uni[versity] students.” |
4.2.8 Sense of Presence
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Sense of presence | The degree to which students feel that they are on campus while they are in their actual physical location because of the effects of 3DVW | Positive | 51 | “Second Life can be designed to reflect the exact layout of the university which creates the feeling of being on campus.” “… having the virtual world created allows students to imagine actually being in the classroom which keeps a structure to the class period that having no avatar would not” |
4.2.9 Self-efficacy
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of Participants | Sample quote |
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Technology savviness | The ability to apply information technology in sophisticated, innovative ways to solve problems across disciplines and subject areas; to interpret vast amounts of information with analytic skill; to understand basic principles of programming and computer science fundamentals; and to continually adapt and learn new technologies as they emerge in the future | Positive | 9 | “Although, as technology advances, it could be assumed the technology-savvy generation will keep up. Hence, the majority of students should be able to easily log onto Second Life.” “Especially for the younger generation who have grown up around technology and are proficient in using computers, this can be a more effective way to educate the younger generation who see a computer screen more” “our generation and future generations are becoming more and more technologically advanced, so I think it would be ignorant to not take advantages of the benefits of platforms like second life” |
4.2.10 Convenience
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Time efficiency | The amount of time that can be saved by using the 3DVWs in an educational programme compared to a traditional classroom setting | Positive | 65 | “Second Life saves time, money and effort because it is online and simple to use.” “it saves the time of having to travel to and from uni[versity] and I think a lot of students would actually prefer it over an in class discussion” |
Perceived schedule flexibility | The amount of flexibility students perceive they have over their education programme time schedule | Positive | 33 | “It gives me flexibility in my personal schedule for example if I have a work commitment at the same time as a lecture” “The ability to access the classroom anywhere meant that it has a very flexible schedule for that day.” |
Perceived convenience | The degree to which students believe that using a 3DVW technology in their educational programme would give them flexibility and efficiency in location, effort and accessing the classroom and material remotely | Positive | 195 | “Advantages of using second life is that students and tutors can talk to each other from home or wherever is most convenient for them and not have to meet in person but still be able to talk about whatever they need to” “It also provides flexibility in that whether a student is learning from home, work or even a café it gives them the ability to join class and work asynchronously on the same project as it can be accessed from anywhere with a reasonable internet connection” |
4.2.11 Interactions
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Self-confidence | The degree to which students have a belief in their ability to interact with the instructor and other students by using the 3DVW technology | Positive | 58 | “A 3D virtual world would avoid 'awkward' discussion as some students may be shy to contribute face to face or in a classroom full of 30 students or more.” “… It is also beneficial to shy students who are scared to speak up in class and gives them the opportunity to give input in another way” “An advantage of second life is it allows people who are shy to have their opinion without the confrontation of public speaking” |
Social isolation | The degree to which a student feels alone, anonymous, and detached from classmates and other students of the university | Negative | 66 | “the disadvantage is we felt like just talking and learning from a machine” “the disadvantage of the 2nd life is we are not really enjoy the real life of study and the real communicate with our classmate” “Lack of face to face communication promotes anti-social behaviours and lack of social skills which can lead to other complications.” |
Interaction difficulty | The barriers arising in communication when the interaction is not face-to-face | Negative | 20 | “In a face to face lecture you get a real response, through body language and tone of voice whereas things can be misinterpreted through messaging” “And another point to bring up just about second life in general is that you cannot read others body language or their emotions as you would having a normal face to face conversation.” “You simply do not have the same connection with people online as appose to in person” |
4.2.12 Virtual Environment
Factor | Definition | Impact on user acceptance | Number of participants | Sample quote |
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Multi-functionality | The diversity of functionalities provided by a 3DVW technology in a higher education setting | Positive | 18 | “there are many possibilities within second life, for both education and recreational purposes” “In a 3D virtual world, it is possible to have everything in one place, which students can access online. All of the course materials and lecture notes, as well as virtual rooms where lectures or tutorials can be held” |
Customisability | The ability to modify a component in a virtual environment as per the application requirement | Positive | 26 | “This technology is very versatile on how it can be used and can suit any learning requirements.” “Second life … has an unlimited foundation of possibilities within the learning experience” |
Interactive learning material | The digital learning material that requires the student to complete a series of related activities to learn a specific concept | Positive | 63 | “The use of course material online in a virtual world provides us with another means of accessing the material other than hard copies” “Students can also stay up to date and find useful information by using the never-ending avenues of interactive course material” |
Category | Factor | Impact on User Acceptance | Frequency of themes in data | ||
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*VFGs (124 samples) | Question (121 samples) | Total | |||
Ease of use | Perceived ease of use | + | 13 | 14 | 27 |
User friendliness | + | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
Accessibility | Ease of access | + | 10 | 10 | 20 |
Access flexibility | + | 10 | 4 | 14 | |
Infrastructure | Hardware dependency | − | 31 | 3 | 34 |
Internet dependency | − | 33 | 5 | 38 | |
3DVW Reliability | + | 26 | 4 | 30 | |
Data Security | + | 5 | 1 | 6 | |
Communication flexibility | + | 34 | 25 | 59 | |
Usefulness | Perceived usefulness | + | 15 | 12 | 27 |
Attractiveness | Visual attractiveness | + | 8 | 11 | 19 |
Enjoyment | Perceived enjoyment | + | 33 | 27 | 60 |
Perceived playfulness | + | 7 | 12 | 19 | |
Perceived distraction | − | 22 | 6 | 28 | |
Cost efficiency | Cost efficiency | + | 42 | 56 | 98 |
Sense of Presence | Sense of presence | + | 23 | 28 | 51 |
Self-efficacy | Technology savviness | + | 6 | 3 | 9 |
Convenience | Time efficiency | + | 35 | 30 | 65 |
Perceived schedule flexibility | + | 9 | 24 | 33 | |
Perceived convenience | + | 103 | 92 | 195 | |
Interactions | Self-confidence | + | 27 | 31 | 58 |
Social isolation | − | 62 | 4 | 66 | |
Interaction difficulty | − | 19 | 1 | 20 | |
Virtual Environment | Multi-functionality | + | 5 | 13 | 18 |
Customisability | + | 1 | 25 | 26 | |
Interactive learning material | + | 26 | 37 | 63 |
5 Discussions and Conclusions
Antecedents with a positive effect | Brief implication |
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* User friendliness | A user-friendly learning environment enables students with little or no technical background to easily navigate within the environment with no difficulty and helps them establish an immediate relationship with technology |
Perceived ease of use | Designing an easy-to-use environment and including simple options in the virtual learning environment help students immediately learn the features of the new technology |
Perceived usefulness | When students believe that using a 3DVW would enhance their performance in education, they will be encouraged to accept the technology |
* Ease of access | 3DVW is easily accessible through a computer and an Internet connection. This characteristic contributes to increased user acceptance of this technology in higher education |
* Access flexibility | Students can easily access the learning environment through a wide range of electronic devices. This characteristic has a positive impact on user acceptance of the technology |
* Visual attractiveness | When the visual effects and elements, graphical structure, colours, patterns, and overall view of a virtual learning environment is aesthetically pleasing to students, they intend to accept and use the technology |
* 3DVW reliability | Creating a 3DVW-based learning environment with minimum software bugs, technical difficulties, operation issues, and glitches will have a positive impact on user acceptance of the technology |
* Data security | A higher level of data security for the virtual learning and teaching environment is one of the major concerns of students using this tool for their education |
* Communication flexibility | Various communication tools embedded in 3DVWs have increased the flexibility of communication among students and educators and positively impacts user acceptance of the technology |
Perceived enjoyment | When a 3DVW is considered a fun and pleasing technology, students are intrinsically motivated to accept and use it |
* Perceived playfulness | Students could gain intrinsic enjoyment while navigating their avatars in the virtual learning environment. This characteristic has a positive impact on user acceptance of 3DVW technology |
* Cost efficiency | 3DVW is a cost-efficient technology to be used in the field of education, and the use of the technology reduces a large number of expenses for both students and educational institutions |
* Time efficiency | Students can save a large amount of time that they would usually spend when they have a traditional classroom |
* Perceived schedule flexibility | 3DVW technology provides access to the activities, course materials and lectures online and 24/7, which gives students a flexible study schedule |
* Perceived convenience | 3DVW-based learning allows students to learn in the comfort of their own place, without travelling to the campus, which is considered a convenience for them |
* Multi-functionality | The diversity of functionalities that 3DVW platforms present have made this technology a multipurpose and multi-functional environment for distance learning |
* Customisability | 3DVWs allow designers to specify a set of extensions or changes to the core capabilities of the educational environment based on the requirements of the students and teaching course |
* Interactive learning material | Course material can be designed and offered within 3DVWs in an interactive manner, and students can go through the material independently based on their own pace of learning and understanding |
* Technology savviness | Technology-savvy students are encouraged to use new tools in their educational programmes, and 3DVW is no exception |
* Sense of presence | In order to enable students’ immersion into the virtual learning space, the environments must be created so they are similar to the real-world teaching and learning environment |
* Self-confidence | 3DVW technology leads to increased self-confidence in interactions, and self-confidence significantly impacts students’ acceptance of the technology |
Antecedents with a negative effect | Brief implication |
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* Hardware dependency | This technology requires appropriate hardware specifications to run and perform |
* Internet dependency | This technology requires a high-speed internet connection to run and perform |
* Perceived distraction | The entertaining characteristic of this technology can be a distraction to students learning |
Social isolation | Distance learning reduces face-to-face interactions among students as they lose real conversations and relationships and can contribute to social isolation |
* Interaction difficulty | There is a lack of body language, eye contact, facial expressions, postures, gestures, and proximity in the virtual world, which creates a communication barrier between students and instructors and students themselves, thus contributing to interaction difficulties |
* The factor has not been identified or examined previously in the literature |
5.1 Implications for Theory, Methodology and Pedagogical Practice
5.1.1 Implications for Theory
5.1.2 Implications for Methodology
5.1.3 Implications for Pedagogical practice
5.2 Research Contribution
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The study provides a big picture of various aspects of the adoption of 3DVWs in higher education. It identified multiple factors which influence the acceptance of 3DVW technology. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive study identifying and introducing 26 antecedents of user acceptance of 3DVWs in higher education.
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This study introduces 22 new constructs that have not been examined in the field. Based on the results of the literature review conducted for this research, a limited number of studies looked at the user acceptability of the technology in higher education; and the majority of them have focused on a small number of constructs that are mostly different to the findings of the current research.
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In addition to the factors that have a significant and positive impact on technology’s adoption, this study introduces another category of factors that negatively impact the user acceptance of the technology in higher education.
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In addition to the strengths of 3DVWs for higher education, the current study also highlights the technology's critical issues and limitations that affect its application in higher education and the learning effectiveness.
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The study provides constructive implications for theory, methodology, and pedagogical practice, with design solutions to the educational communities such as higher education institutions, teaching staff, course designers, curriculum designers and developers, and the higher education research community.