Design creativity
Creativity in design, or design creativity, is a significant element for new product development, which occurs between the problem and solution space (Demirkan & Afacan,
2012). It is widely considered an essential part of the conceptual design stage where successful designs are often originated from (Chiu & Shu,
2012; Crilly & Moroşanu Firth,
2019; Thompson & Lordan,
1999; Toh & Miller,
2015). However, there is a long-term debate surrounding the definition of creativity in classical research fields (such as psychology and cognitive science) and design research. Han et al. (
2021) reviewed over 50 studies in various fields, with a particular focus on design, to explore how creativity is defined and assessed. They revealed that novelty and usefulness are consistently used as the core elements for defining and assessing creativity across the board. Novelty refers to both newness and originality, while usefulness refers to quality, feasibility and value (Chiu & Shu,
2012; Girotra et al.,
2010; Han et al.,
2021; Sarkar & Chakrabarti,
2011; Shah et al.,
2003). Although Gero et al. (
2019) argued that surprise should be included as the third element of design creativity for measuring the unexpectedness of a design, many other researchers, including Chiu and Shu (
2012), Zheng and Miller (
2020) and Koronis et al. (
2019), indicated surprise as a nuance of novelty. Therefore, novelty and usefulness are considered the two key elements of design creativity. In other words, design creativity refers to the generation of novel and useful products, which is in line with the common design creativity definition by Sarkar and Chakrabarti (
2008). Few studies have explored the links between novelty and usefulness, of which He and Luo (
2017) found that an inventive design’s novelty profile can influence its usefulness value, while Han et al. (
2021) showed that there are no significant relations between a product’s novelty and usefulness.
Innovation is a crucial factor for commercial success and viability in a competitive market (Bruton,
2011; Guo et al.,
2017), which is highly related to product development. Creativity and innovation are often discussed simultaneously in design research, while creativity is considered central to innovative product development (Crilly & Moroşanu Firth,
2019; Shai et al.,
2009). Moreover, Sarkar and Chakrabarti (
2011) showed that creativity is considered the prerequisite for product innovation, Cropley et al. (
2011) indicated that creative product is the initial point for product innovation, and Starkey et al. (
2016) claimed that successful innovation depends on creative design ideas. This has implied that design creativity is a key driver of product innovation, ultimately leading to business success and commercial benefits. Cultivating design creativity to prepare students to be innovative designers and design engineers is thereby significant for design education.
Group work in education
Group work is a popular teaching strategy in higher education, and it is commonly asserted that students need collaborative group working experience prior to employment (Almond,
2009). Benefits frequently highlighted include that it can foster students’ abilities and skills in oral communication, written communication, collective decision making, group management, interpersonal dynamics issues, critical reflection, self-directed learning, and social interactions (Almond,
2009; Boud et al.,
1999; Burke,
2011; Gupta,
2004). These skills and abilities are not discipline-specific but are transferable that could benefit lifelong learning. Although students generate one final ‘product’ in group work, it still provides opportunities for individuals to learn related concepts and knowledge (Pfaff & Huddleston,
2003). In addition, students are also able to learn from each other in several ways, such as giving and receiving help, sharing knowledge, observing others, and building on each other’s ideas, which will increase their knowledge and understanding (Webb & Mastergeorge,
2003). Mbalamula (
2018) indicated that students perform better in groups than individuals, and the students’ scores increase while the number of students in a group increases. Group work also has the advantage of using limited resources effectively. For instance, Almond (
2009) and Pfaff and Huddleston (
2003) indicated that higher education institutions may reduce the material resources and marking effort by employing group work.
However, many researchers hold a sceptical view of the value of group work, despite its claimed benefits in higher education. Beebe and Masterson (
2003) indicated that group work might cause issues such as peer pressure to conform to majority opinions, individuals dominating discussions, some members relying heavily on others, and time-consuming compared with individual work. Bacon (
2005) indicated that students learned less in group projects than in individual projects. Pauli et al. (
2008) claimed that motivational, interactional, and logistical difficulties are the main source of causing problems in group work. Lin et al., (
2019) revealed that the two main flaws in group work projects are ‘social loafing’ and ‘unfair mark’. ‘Social loafing’ refers to the phenomenon that people spend less effort in group work than individual work for achieving a goal. ‘Unfair mark’ refers to the marks, which cannot truly reflect each individual’s contribution, given to the group members. One of the common methods to address the issues arisen in group work is to perform self and peer assessment among students (Elliott & Higgins,
2005). However, there are doubts about the usefulness of peer assessment, as indicated in the research conducted by Kennedy (
2005) and King and Behnke (
2005).
Several researchers have investigated the use of group work and individual work in different education settings. For example, Rickheim et al. (
2002) showed that group work and individual work are equally effective at delivering key elements in medical health education, while group work is more cost-effective and efficient. Fernández Dobao (
2012) revealed that groups perform better than individuals in terms of accuracy while conducting writing tasks. Cronin and McCabe (
2017) showed that students working individually in laboratory-based science classes have significantly improved laboratory techniques in comparison with students working in groups. Lin (
2019) indicated that students perform better in group work than individual work in terms of vocabulary learning, despite students prefer individual work. These examples show that the effects of group work vary in different educational contexts.
In design education, group work is employed to support students in experiencing and understanding collaborative design processes (Qu et al.,
2019). The ability to work in a group is highly demanded by design practice (Thompson,
2002). Many design activities involve group work, especially when solving complex design problems (Daly et al.,
2019). Early studies revealed that group work could lead to better clarifications of tasks, the generation of a large variety of ideas, and a more intensive analysis of the ideas generated, but dominant group members often influence group discussions, which might even interrupt group cooperation (Ehrlenspiel et al.,
1997). In recent studies, Lee et al. (
2017) investigated the cognitive challenges for design teams and their educators. Tucker (
2017) proposed a framework for understanding the effectiveness of group work in design assignments, which supports educators to better integrate group work into their modules and evaluate learning outcomes. Qu et al. (
2019) indicated that design educators are positive about the students’ results and effort in group work. However, the learning outcomes of each individual in group work varies greatly, depending on the course set up, cognitive levels, commitments, and group role-related knowledge. Mattioli (
2019) raised the attention of the extensive use of cross-culture design teams, including disciplinarily diverse, demographically diverse and cognitively diverse, in nowadays education. Group work tends to be a widely used approach in design education (Thompson,
2002) with an increasing research interest, but whether group work is a beneficial approach for educating design creativity needs further investigation.
Creativity in design education
Creativity plays a significant role in practical design and is presented in all stages of the design process, including detailed design (Court,
1998). Several studies have explored the impacts of group work and individual work on creative design activities. Court (
1998) indicated that group methods are favoured, while it is important to create a suitable environment and construct multidisciplinary groups. Taggar (
2002) showed that the combinations of contributions from the individual group members at group level could lead to ideas that are more creative. Kohn et al. (
2011) indicated that groups outperform individuals on idea combination, generating more novel and feasible outputs. Bissola and Imperatori (
2011) showed that designers with poor individual creative skills can perform well in groups if organised properly. McMahon et al. (
2016) also showed that it is beneficial to develop ideas in collaborative groups compared with individuals. By conducting a real-life setting case study, Petersson et al. (
2017) revealed that group work is beneficial for the analysis of design topics and the generation of ideas to address the topics. However, researchers, such as Stroebe et al. (
2010) and Putman and Paulus (
2009), held the view that individuals are more creative and perform better in brainstorming compared with groups. Nevertheless, Linsey et al. (
2011) indicated that individual and group work are both important in idea generation.
Design education is considered the base of knowledge about design creativity (Rauth et al.,
2010). Therefore, fostering design students with creative skills and methods is considered an important part of their education stage and future careers. In addition, creativity is also considered a significant element of the UK design course accreditation criteria of the Institution of Engineering Designers (IED) and the Chartered Society of Designers (CSD) (Dowlen,
2019).
Producing ideas is essential in design, which has a significant impact on the success of a product. It is revealed that there is a strong link between the raw ideas of a product and the consumers’ purchase intent of the product (Kornish & Ulrich,
2014). However, it can be challenging for designers to come up with creative ideas, particularly design students (Wong & Siu,
2012). Therefore, educating students with creative idea generation skills and methods plays a significant role in the curriculum of design education. Many studies have investigated how to prepare students with the ability to generate creative ideas, as it significantly affects the quality of the final creative outputs (Zhang et al.,
2015). For example, Hernandez et al. (
2014) investigated the use of TRIZ, Sketching and Smartpen in a design course, and indicated all three aids had enhanced the effectiveness of students’ idea generation while TRIZ was the best in improving novelty; and Daly et al. (
2019) showed the use of the 77 Design Heuristics (Yilmaz et al.,
2016) in design classrooms could support the exploration of more innovative ideas. Many creativity tools or ideation techniques are employed in design classes for supporting design students in creative idea generation, which involves:
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Bio-inspired Design (Chakrabarti & Shu,
2010; Helms et al.,
2009)
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Brainstorming (Osborn,
1979)
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C-Sketch (Shah et al.,
2001)
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Lateral Thinking (De Bono,
2010)
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Method 6–3-5 (Rhorbach,
1969)
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Mind Mapping (Buzan,
2006)
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Morphological Analysis (Zwicky,
1969)
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Six Thinking Hats (De Bono,
1985)
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However, some of the tools are suitable for group work while some others are more suitable for individuals. For examples, six thinking hats (De Bono,
1985), C-sketch (Shah et al.,
2001), and brainstorming (Osborn,
1979) including its variations, such as brain-writing, sticky note and flip chart brainstorming, are more suitable for groups than individuals. Creativity tools, such as TRIZ (Altshuller,
1984), are more suitable to be used by individuals rather than groups. Linsey et al. (
2005) showed that group idea generation techniques, such as C-Sketch, could support designers in generating ideas with a larger quantity and better quality. In addition to these conventional idea generation techniques, computational creativity support tools have been developed in recent years for supporting designers in creative idea generation, such as Idea Inspire 4.0 (Siddharth & Chakrabarti,
2018), the Retriever (Han et al.,
2018b), the Combinator (Han et al.,
2018a), and InnoGPS (Luo et al.,
2019). Although most of these computational tools are aimed for supporting individual designers, few of the tools have been employed in the current design education.
Design creativity assessment is also central to the curriculum of design education, which often occurs while students are developing their design ideas and concepts (Georgiev & Casakin,
2019). In design practice, many methods, involving Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT) (Amabile,
1982) and Creative Product Semantic Scale (CPSS) (O'Quin & Besemer,
1989), are often employed to assess the degree of creativity for product ideas and concepts. In design education, students evaluate the ideas generated and select the best or the most preferred one by employing idea evaluation and selection methods, which are not aimed at assessing creativity specifically, rather than using design creativity assessment methods. However, idea evaluation and selection is still considered a challenging task for students, which involves compromise, judgment and risk (Oman et al.,
2013). Furthermore, many textbooks used by educators for teaching STEM design courses, including the ‘Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach’ (Pahl & Beitz,
2013), the ‘Delft Design Guide: Design Strategies and Methods’ (Van Boeijen et al.,
2014), and the ‘Mechanical Design Engineering Handbook’ (Childs,
2018), provide useful methods for evaluating and selecting ideas, but not considering creativity as a design requirement in general. Several methods often used in design education for idea evaluation and selection are listed as follows:
These idea evaluation and selection methods are often used by both groups and individuals. Faure (
2004) showed that the quality or novelty of the ideas selected by a group of individuals and an interactive group do not have significant differences. However, Nijstad and De Dreu (
2002) suggested that the selection of high-quality ideas performs better in groups rather than individuals. Rietzschel et al. (
2006) indicated that idea selection is a judgment task, where group discussion could improve the selection process. They revealed that groups tend to select more novel ideas compared with individuals.
According to the preceding reviews, both group and individual work have their advantages and disadvantages, but group work tends to be more popular and effective in design education and creative design activities. However, few practical studies have been conducted that could provide the direct evidence. Therefore, a case study is conducted in the next section to yield more practical insights.