nach oben

Quality & Quantity

Erschienen in:

11.03.2020

Bringing archaeology into the information age: entropy, noise, channel capacity, and information potential in archaeological significance assessments

verfasst von: Kevin C. Nolan

Erschienen in: Quality & Quantity | Ausgabe 4/2020

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

Most archaeology today is conducted by private cultural resources management (CRM) firms in compliance with preservation legislation. Industry archaeologists make decisions that affect the expenditure of public and private development funds, and determine what resources, data, and information are available for the future. Decisions about what is archaeologically significant impact public value purchased by governments and firms, and impact cumulative ability to know the archaeological record. While there are many concepts of archaeological significance, many justify significance in terms of the information yield. Few define information. Discussions are confused by vague or absent definitions of information, and the conflation of data volume with information resulting in bias in the types of resources preserved. Perpetuating modern theoretical interests into the preserved data hobbles future archaeology. In the interest of representative preservation of archaeological information, we need an operational definition of “information” and which resources have information potential. To unify and organize discussions of information and representative samples, I turn to information theory. Claude E. Shannon provides a formal definition of “information”. Applying Shannon’s concepts of entropy and equivocation provides formal tools to objectively assess relative and absolute information potential, and can force CRM practitioners to more explicitly justify their recommendations for expenditure of public and private development funds and preserve a more representative sample of the archaeological record for future inquiry. Bringing archaeology into the information age is a practical solution to many problems with CRM significance evaluations, and will better justify the value CRM provides in return for public investment in archaeology.

Vorheriger Artikel Quantifying and analyzing nonlinear relationships with a fresh look at a classical dataset of student scores

Nächster Artikel Does education reduce homicide? A panel data analysis of Asian region

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

There are exceptions, significance is messy and there is no one-to-one match with the NRHP criteria.

There is debate in the information, statistical mechanics, and physics literature as to whether Shannon’s entropy is thermodynamic entropy. Everyone acknowledges similarities in properties, but not everyone admits identity. Henceforth, my use of “entropy” refers to “Shannon entropy” or Shannon’s definition of “information”, unless otherwise specified.

Quantitative assessment of equivocation would require a defined symbol set for discrete observations and the occupations we are reconstructing. The symbol set of discrete observations would entail an explicit artifact classification and some type of classification of the spatial arrangement(s). Traditional units of artifact types, phases, site types, etc. are not sufficient to the task, though they can be used in an informal way in initial applications of the proposed model. Rafferty (2012) and Rafferty et al. (2011) provide an example of a way to create such an alphabet for occupations from observational units. Only after defining the number of possible classes in the channel and for the receiver can we begin to calculate conditional entropy. However, we can use the proposed model to frame the relative conditional entropies of different patterns of survey results.

An anonymous reviewer noted that there are many methods of investigation into formation processes that can account for and mitigate the increase in entropy and that my characterization of the increase in equivocation as “irretrievable” was perhaps too strong. I acknowledge the reviewer’s point. Indeed there are well tested methods and theories for assessing formation processes, in effect filtering the noise from the signal. However, any information lost is irretrievable, and there is always some that is irretrievable. The reviewer’s comment speaks to the discussion of error correction, noise reduction, and sampling decisions given a specified set of noise for a specific period (N_j). I did not mean to imply there is no way to filter noise and correct errors in the archaeological record. The ability of established methods to mitigate formation processes is factored into discussions of assessing channel capacity, and the methods referenced by the reviewer are what I had in mind in that discussion.

This would also include a version of intersymbol interference (Hartley 1928: 544). In archaeology, there is also intersource interference which is the N_j introduced by a different X_i occurring in the same place at a different time i. Being recipients, we cannot take Hartley’s design solution guidance; however, we can be aware of this as a practical limit in the approximation of H_Ys(Δ_j) to H(Δ_j).

Alexander, P.M.: Towards reconstructing meaning when text is communicated electronically. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Information Technology, University of Pretoria, South Africa (2002)

Alicki, R., Horodecki, M.: Information-thermodynamics link revisited. J. Phys. A: Math. Theor. 52(20), 204001 (2019)

Altschul, J.H.: Significance in American cultural resource management: lost in the past. In: Mathers, C., Darvill, T., Little, B. (eds.) Heritage of Value, Archaeology of Renown: Reshaping Archaeological Assessment and Significance, pp. 192–210. University Press of Florida, Gainesville (2005)

Alvey, J. S.: All models are wrong: the problem of undersampling for models of archaeological occupations and its consequences for significance determinations. Paper presented at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, Nashville, Tennessee (2015)

Alvey, J. S.: The problem of undersampling for models of archaeological occupations derived from shovel testing and its consequences for significance determinations. In: Paleodemographic Modeling in the Lower Mississippi River Valley, pp. 61–94. Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia (2019)

Ash, R.: Information Theory. Interscience Publishers, New York (1965)

Bailey, K.D.: Sociological entropy theory: toward a statistical and verbal congruence. Qual. Quant. 18, 113–133 (1983)

Baker, S. W.: Phase I and II cultural resources survey for the ADA-SR136-21.51 bridge replacement project located in Winchester Township, Adams County, Ohio (PID 12905). Cultural Resources Unit, Bureau of Environmental Services, Ohio Department of Transportation, Columbus, Ohio (1998)

Binford, L.R.: Behavioral archaeology and the “Pompeii Premis”. J. Anthropol. Res. 37(3), 195–208 (1981)

Brillouin, L.: Science and Information Theory, 2nd edn. Academic Press, New York (1962)

Bruier, F.L., Mathers, C.: Trends and patterns in cultural resource significance: an historical perspective and annotated bibliography. US Army Corps of Engineers Evaluation of Environmental Investments Research Program (1996)

Cain, D.: Revisiting lithic scatters: a CRM perspective. Southeast. Archaeol. 31, 207–220 (2012)

Capecchi, V., Möller, F.: Some applications of the entropy to the problems of classification. Qual. Quant. 2, 63–84 (1968)

Caputo, J.: Something out of nothing: the significance of marginal sites. Proc. Soc. Calif. Archaeol. 4, 11–21 (1991)

Dunlop, J.E.: Pushing the Limits: testing, magnetometry and ontario lithic scatters. Unpublished MA Thesis, Graduate Program in Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, London (2018)

Dunnell, R.C.: Ethics of archaeological significance decisions. In: Green, E.L. (ed.) Ethics and Values in Archaeology, pp. 62–74. The Free Press, New York (1984)

Dunnell, R.C.: The notion site. In: Rossingol, J., Wandsnider, L. (Eds.) Space, time, and archaeological landscapes, pp. 21–41. Plenum Press, New York (1992)

Dunnell, R.C., Dancey, W.S.: Siteless survey: a regional scale data collection strategy. Adv. Archaeol. Method Theory 8, 267–287 (1983)

Ellerman, D.: An introduction to logical entropy and its relation to shannon entropy. Int. J. Semant. Comput. 07, 121–145 (2013)

Feinstein, A.: Foundations of Information Theory. McGraw-Hill, New York (1958)

Goldman, S.: Information Theory. Dover Publications Inc, New York (1968)

Grandy, C.: The principle of maximum entropy and the difference between risk and uncertainty. In: Grandy, W.T., Schick, L.H. (eds.) Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods, pp. 39–47. Kluwer Academic Publishers (1991)

Grandy, W.T.: Resource letter ITP-1: information theory in physics. Am. J. Phys. 65, 466–476 (1997)

Guiasu, S., Shenitzer, A.: The principle of maximum entropy. Math. Intell. 7, 42–48 (1985)

Hartley, R.V.L.: Transmission of information. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 7, 535–563 (1928)

Hasenstab, R.J.: The “Lithic Scatter” as an artifact of field testing. In: Current approaches to the analysis and interpretation of small lithic sites in the Northeast, edited by CB Reith, pp. 11–36. New York State Museum Bulletin Series 508, New York State Education Department, Albany, New York (2008)

Hebler, G.: Archaeological site significance. Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana (1996)

Jackson, R., Boynton, M., Olsen, W., Weaver, R.: Californian archaeological resource identification and data acquisition program: sparse lithic scatters, A Program For The Identification And Management Of An Archaeological Resource Class. Office of Historic Preservation, Sacramento, California (1988)

Jaynes, E.T.: Information theory and statistical mechanics. Phys. Rev. 106, 620–630 (1957)

Kelly Jr., J.L.: A new interpretation of information rate. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 35, 917–926 (1956)

Krakker, J.J., Shott, M.J., Welch, P.D.: Design and evaluation of shovel-test sampling in regional archaeological survey. J. Field Archaeol. 10, 469–480 (1983)

Kubát, L., Zeman, J.: Entropy and information in science and philosophy. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York (1975)

Kullback, S.: Information Theory and Statistics. Dover Publications Inc, Mineola (1968)

Landauer, R.: Information is physical. Physics Today, pp 23–29 (1991)

Laurenzi, A., Peeples, M.A., Doelle, W.H.: Cultural resources priority area planning in Sub-Mogollon Arizona and New Mexico. Adv. Archaeol. Pract. 1(2), 61–76 (2013)

Lipe, W.D.: A conservation model for American archaeology. Kiva 39(3–4), 213–245 (1974)

Lipe, W.D.: In: Sebastian, L., Lipe, W.D. (eds.) Archaeology and Cultural Resource Management: Visions for the Future, pp. 41–63. School for Advanced Research Press, Sante Fe (2009)

Little, B., Seibert, E.M., Townsend, J., Sprinkle, J.H. Jr.: Guidelines for evaluating and registering archaeological properties. National Register Bulletin 36. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Parks Service. Washington, D.C. (2000)

Mandelbrot, B.: An information theory of the statistical structure of language. In: Jackson, W. (eds.) Communication Theory, pp. 486–502. Butterworth, Woburn, Massachussets (1953)

McGimsey, C.R.: Public Archaeology. Seminar Press, New York (1972)

McManamon, F.P.: A regional perspective on assessing the significance of historic period sites. Hist. Archaeol. 24(2), 14–22 (1990)

Morton, J.: The “isolated find” concept and its consequences in public archaeology. Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures, Mississippi State University, Starkville, Mississippi (2015)

National Parks Service (NPS): Technical Information on the the [sic] National Register of Historic Places: survey, evaluation, and preservation of cultural resources. National Register Bulletin 15. Cultural Resources, National Parks Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. (1995)

Nolan, K.C.: Prospecting for prehistoric gardens: results of a pilot study. Archaeol. Prospect. 21, 147–154 (2014)

Nolan, K.C.: Getting value out of archaeology: a consideration of the public investment in archaeology. In: Paper presented at the TEDx Ball State University Conference, April 25th, Muncie, Indiana (2015). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CXwYcz3U8M

Nolan, K.C., Leak, J., Quimbach, C.: The single-pass survey and the collector: a reasonable effort in good faith? In: Shott, M.J., Seeman, M.F., Nolan, K.C. (eds) Collaborative Engagement: Working with Responsible Private Collectors and Collections, pp. 51–66. Occasional Papers No. 3, Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology (2018)

Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT): Chapter 7: Identification of historic properties: phase I archaeology survey. In: Cultural Resources Manual. Ohio Department of Transportation, Columbus, Ohio (2012)

Peacock, E.: Cultural Resources Inventory, Timber Thinning Areas, Fiscal Year 1994, Bayou Bodcau Reservoir, Bossier and Webster Parishes, Louisiana. Report Submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg District. Panamerican Consultants, Inc., Tuscaloosa, Alabama (1994)

Peacock, E.: Some comments on significance and federal archaeology. In F.L. Briuer (ed.) Cultural Resource Significance Evaluation: Proceedings of a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Workshop, 3–4 October 1994, Vicksburg, Mississippi, 42–50. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Water Resources Support Center, Institute for Water Resources, IWR Report 96-EL-3). Alexandria (1996)

Peacock, E.: Where the Rubber Meets the Road. Mississippi State University, Starkville, Mississippi, Paper prepared for SAARAS Workshop (2012)

Peacock, E., Burnworth, B.: What Are We Saving? A Nationwide Review of Phase I Survey Reports. In: Paper presented at the 75th Annual Society for American Archaeology meeting, St. Louis, Missouri (2010)

Peacock, E., Rafferty, J.: Cultural resource management guidelines and practice in the United States. In: Willems, W., van den Dries, M. (eds.) Quality Management in Archaeology, pp. 113–134. Oxbow Books, Oxford (2007)

Peacock, E., Feathers, J.K., Alvey, J., Baca, K.: Space, time, and form at the pinnix site (22GR795): a “Lithic Scatter” in the North Central Hills of Mississippi. Miss. Archaeol. 43(1), 67–106 (2008)

Pecora, A.M.: The meaning of lithic debris and fire-cracked rock in ohio’s crm archaeology: a review. Draft manuscript in possession of the author (2014)

Perazio, P.A.: In small things too frequently overlooked – prehistoric sites in the pocono uplands. In: Rieth, C.B. (ed) Current Approaches to the Analysis and Interpretation of Small Lithic Sites in the Northeast, pp. 89–100. New York State Museum Bulletin Series 508, New York State Education Department, Albany (2008)

Pierce, J.R.: An Introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals and Noise, 2nd edn. Dover Publications Inc, New York (1980)

Plog, S., Plog, F., Wait, W.: Decision making in modern surveys. Adv. Archaeol. Method Theory 1, 383–421 (1978)

Pollack, D. (ed): The Archaeology of Kentucky: An Update. Volume Two. Kentucky Heritage Council, State Historic Comprehensive Plan Report No. 3, Frankfort, Kentucky (2008)

Rafferty, J.: Classification at the Scale of Occupation: A Case Study. Mississippi State University, Starkville, Mississippi, Paper prepared for SAARAS Workshop (2012)

Rafferty, J., Alvey, J., Baca, K., Edmonds, J., Fazio, M., Hayes, M.: Systematic Cultural Resources Survey of a Proposed Mine Area in Kemper and Lauderdale Counties, Mississippi. Report prepared for North American Coal Corporation. Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Starkville, Mississippi (2011)

Rieth, C.B. (ed.): Current Approaches to the Analysis and Interpretation of Small Lithic Sites in the Northeast. New York State Museum Bulletin Series 508, New York State Education Department, Albany, New York (2008)

Rioul, O., Magossi, J.C.: On Shannon’s Formula and Hartley’s Rule: beyond the mathematical coincidence. Entropy 16, 4892–4910 (2014)

Schumacher, B.: The Science of Information: From Language to Black Holes. Course Guidebook, The Great Courses, Chantilly, Virginia (2015)

Schumacher, B.: The Science of Information: From Language to Black Holes (Audiobook). The Great Courses, Chantilly, Virginia (2016)

Shannon, C.E.: A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 27, 379–656 (1948)

Shannon, C.E.: Communication theory of secrecy systems. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 28(4), 656–715 (1949)

Shannon, C.E.: Prediction and entropy of printed English. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 30, 50–64 (1951)

Shannon, C.E.: Communication in the presence of noise. Proc IEEE. 72(9):1192–1201 (1984)

Shott, M.: Shovel-Test sampling as a site discovery technique: a case study from Michigan. J. Field Archaeol. 12(4), 457–468 (1985)

Solana-Ortega, A.: The information revolution is yet to come (an homage to Claude E. Shannon). AIP Conf. Proc. 617, 458–473 (2002)

Tainter, J.A.: Persistent dilemmas in American cultural resource management. In: Bintliff, J. (ed.) A Companion to Archaeology, pp. 435–453. Blackwell, Oxford (2006)

Teachman, J.D.: Analysis of population diversity: measures of qualitative variation. Sociol. Methods Res. 8(3), 341–362 (1980)

Weaver, W.: Recent contributions to the mathematical theory of communication. In: Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W. (eds.) The Mathematical Theory of Communication, pp. 1–28, University of Illinois Press (1949)

Word Tips 2019. Word Finder. https://word.tips/words-start-with/. Accessed November 7, 2019

Wu, Y., Zhou, Y., Saveriades, G., Agaian, S., Noonan, J.P., Natarajan, P.: Local Shannon entropy measure with statistical tests for image randomness. Inf. Sci. 222, 323–342 (2013)

Titel: Bringing archaeology into the information age: entropy, noise, channel capacity, and information potential in archaeological significance assessments
verfasst von: Kevin C. Nolan
Publikationsdatum: 11.03.2020
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Erschienen in: Quality & Quantity / Ausgabe 4/2020
Print ISSN: 0033-5177
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-7845
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-00980-0

Springer Professional

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu Ihrer Lizenz zu erhalten.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 4/2020

Factors with significant impact on efficiency of research laboratories: case of the public university

Data visualization of texts in the transitions of framing Indochinese refugees by Japanese television documentaries

Does education reduce homicide? A panel data analysis of Asian region

Differences in Roma and non-Roma students’ ratings of their peers’ popularity: an inquiry into the oppositional culture in Hungarian schools with the use of a survey experiment

Motivation in sport and exercise: a comparison between the BRSQ and BREQ

Quantifying and analyzing nonlinear relationships with a fresh look at a classical dataset of student scores

Premium Partner