1 Introduction
1.1 Aims of Current Paper
Citation | Size | Cultures compared | Participant age range | Methodology | Type of robot used | Primary research question |
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Andrist et al. [39], Study 1 | N = 96 American = 48 Lebanese = 48 | USA, Lebanon | American: 18–46 years Lebanese: 18–62 years | Experiment | Lego Mindstorm robots in the ev3rstorm configuration | How does the language style and user cultural background influence the perceived credibility of robotic speech? |
Bajones et al. [53] | N = 237 American = 91 Austrian = 67 Japanese = 79s | USA, Austria, Japan | Not reported | Survey | A service robot | How do the users’ cultural background influence their willingness to help a robot? |
Bartneck [23] | N = 112 American = 54 Japanese = 58 | USA, Japan | 18–52 years | Survey | Pictures of Actroid, EveR, ReplieeQ1, Kaya, Maxim Cyberbabe, unnamed entity by Young Jong Cho, Qrio, ASimo, Aibo, PaPeRo, iCat | How do the users’ cultural background influence their perception of a robot’s anthropomorphism and likeability? |
Bartneck et al. [48] | N = 96 Dutch = 24 Chinese = 19 Japanese = 53 | Netherlands (Dutch), Netherlands (Chinese), Japan | Not reported | Survey | N/Ac | How do the users’ cultural background influence their negative attitudes towards robots? |
Bartneck et al. [49] | N = 467 American = 59 British = 58 Dutch = 41 Mexican = 21 German = 109 Japanese = 135 Chinese = 44 | USA, UK, Netherlands, Mexico, Germany, Japan | Not reported | Survey | Aibo (robotic dog) | How do the user’s cultural background influence their attitudes, experience and perception of robots? |
Chien et al. (2015) | N = 549 MTurk = 172 (77% Americans) American = 100 German = 66 Turkish = 91 Taiwanese = 120 | USA, Germany, Turkey, Taiwan | Not reported | Survey | N/Ac | How can trust in autonomation be measured? |
Conti et al. [47] | N = 74 Italian = 37 British = 37 | Italy, UK | Italian: 23–37 years British: 19–40 years | Experiment | NAO | How does the users’ cultural background influence their perception and intention to use a robot as an instrument in future psychological practice? |
Cortellessa et al. [92] | N = 83 Italian = 40 Swedish = 43 | Italy, Sweden | Italy: 56–88 years, Swedish: 58–87 years | Experiment | Videos of an assistive robot | How does the elderly users’ cultural background influence their perceptions of social assistive domestic robots? |
Destephe et al. [50] | N = 69 French = 47 Japanese = 22 | France, Japan | French: 21–81 years, Japanese: 21–53 years | Experiment | WABIAN-2R | How do the users’ cultural background, their attitudes towards robots, and the robot’s emotional display influence the users’ human’s perception of the uncanny valley phenomenon in robots? |
Eimler et al. [86], Study 2 | N = 211 American = 111 German = 100 | USA, Germany | Not reported | Experiment | Nabaztag Rabbit | How does the users’ cultural background influence their ability to recognise emotions in robotic features? |
Eresha et al. [99], Studies 1 and 2 | Study 1: N = 24 German = 12 Arabic = 12 Study 2: N = 24 German = 12 Arabic = 12 | German, Arabic (Cultures were specified, not nationality) | Not reported | Experiment | NAO | How does the users’ cultural background influence their preferences for interpersonal distance between themselves and robots in static and dynamic settings? |
Evers et al. [74] | N = 135 American = 67 Chinese = 68 | USA, China | Mean age: 22.67 yearsb | Experiment | A commercially available robot, details not specified | How does the cultural background of users affect human–robot collaboration? |
Fraune et al. [77] | N = 261 American = 120 Japanese = 141 | USA, Japan | Not reported | Experiment | Sociable Trash Robots | How does the users’ cultural background, the group composition of robots and the function of robot influence behaviours towards robotic agents? |
Han et al. [14] | N = 75 Spanish/Europeans = 25 Japanese = 24 Korean = 26 | Spain/EU, Japan, Korea | Parents and children (age was not reported, Table 2 is referred to but not included in the paper) | Survey | Tutoring robot (details not reported) and descriptions of different types of robots | How may our cultural background influence our acceptance of educational robot? |
Haring et al. [20] | N = 41 Japanese = 36 Korean = 2 Chinese = 3 | Japan, Korea, China | Mean age: 22.4 yearsb | Survey | N/Ac | How do cross cultural variations in exposure levels relate to valence of attitude and fear in robots? |
Haring et al. [71] | N = 111 Australian = 56 Japanese = 55 | Australia, Japan | Australian mean age: 28.8 years Japanese mean age: 22.6 yearsb | Experiment (2 samples were combined in analysis) | Female Actroid android | How does the users’ cultural background affect their perception and trust towards an android robot? |
Haring et al. [78] | N = 42 Australian = 22 Japanese = 20 | Australia, Japan | Australian mean age: 21.3 years Japanese mean age: 21.3 yearsb | Experiment | Robi | How does the users’ cultural background affect their perceptions of likeability, animacy, intelligence, and safety of a humanoid robot? |
Haring et al. [79] | N = 126 Australian = 82 Japanese = 44 | Australia, Japan | Australian mean age: 21.5 years Japanese mean age: 23.6 yearsb | Experiment | Robi, My Keepon | Over time, how does the users’ cultural background influence their evaluations of robotic appearance and modality? |
Hudson et al. [65] | N = 27,801 Nationality
information
unavailable | Austria, Bulgaria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden | Mean age: 50.2 yearsb | Survey | No information given other than ‘robots’ | What aspects of individual profiles may relate to positive or negative attitudes to robot deployment for elderly care [within EU cultures]? |
Joosse et al. [80] | N = 181 American = 86 Argentinian = 66 Chinese = 29 | USA, Argentina, China | American mean age: 43.27 years Argentinian mean age: 33.06 years Chinese mean age: 30.48 yearsb | Survey | Videos of a virtual robot | How does the users’ cultural background culture affect their perceptions of a robot’s proxemic approach being appropriate? |
Kamide and Arai [52] | N = 360 American = 180 Japanese = 180 | USA, Japan | American mean age: 29.78 years Japanese mean age: 31.46 yearsb | Survey | Photos of NAO the robot | How does the users’ cultural background influence our perceptions of comfortableness and anthropomorphic features of robots? |
Lee and Sabanovic [59] | N = 218 American = 99 Turkish = 46 South Korean = 73 | USA, Turkey, South Korea | American mean age: 35 years Turkish mean age: 34 years South Korea: 34 yearsb | Survey | None presented but well-known robots and media figure robots named in the questionnaire | How does the users’ cultural backgrounds influence their preferences and acceptance of robots? |
Lee et al. [68] | N = 40 American = 20 South Korean = 20 | USA, South Korea | American mean age: 43.4 years South Korean mean age: 39 yearsb | Mixed methods (Focus group—Survey and Interview) | N/Ac | How do our cultural background impacts on robotic designs that we envisage for our robots? |
Li et al. [58] | N = 108 German = 36 Korean = 36 Chinese = 36 | Germany, Korea, China | German mean age: 23.75 years Korean mean age: 23.28 years Chinese mean age: 24 yearsb | Experiment | Anthropomorphic/zoomorphic and machine-like robots | How does the users’ cultural background influence their perceptions of the robot’s anthropomorphic appearance and rating of the task conducted by the robot? |
MacDorman et al. [12] | N = 731 American = 479 Japanese = 231 | US, Japan | Mean age: 43.9 yearsb | Experiment | Silhouettes of robot figures | How does the users’ cultural background influence their positive perceptions and implicit attitudes towards robots? |
Makatchev et al. [98], Experiment 2 | N = 30 American English speakers = 17 Arabic speakers = 13 | Native American English speakers, native Arabic speakers | American English speakers’ mean age: 26.4 years Arabic speakers’ mean age: 19.5 yearsb | Experiment | Hala Robot | Do robotic verbal and nonverbal behaviours invoke homophily perceptions in human users? |
Mavridis et al. [76] | N = 355 | Americas, Europe, Gulf, Shaam, Africa, SE Asia | 13–60 years | Survey | Ibn Sina | How does the individual’s cultural background affect their opinions and attitudes towards robots during a human-robotic interaction? |
Mussakhojayeva and Anara [66] | N = 60 American = 30 Kazakhstani = 30 | US, Kazakhstan | American: 18–65 years Kazakhstani: 25–65 years | Survey | NAO | How does the individual’s cultural background influence their expectations for envisioned beneficiaries of robots in public places? |
Neerincx et al. [90] | N = 55 Italian = 34 Dutch = 21 | Italy, Netherlands | Italian: 10–14 years, Dutch: 8–11 years | Experiment | NAO | How does children’s cultural background influence their robotic interaction to help manage diabetes? |
Nomura et al. [21] | N = 796 American = 166 Korean = 317 Japanese = 313 | USA, Korea, Japan | American mean age: 23.98 years Korean mean age: 23.54 years Japanese mean age: 18.68 yearsb | Survey | Humanoid robots | How does the individual’s cultural background impact their perception, acceptability and expectations of robot deployment in pedagogical contexts? |
Nomura et al. [22] | N = 796 American = 166 Korean = 317 Japanese = 313 | USA, Korea, Japan | American mean age: 23.98 years Korean mean age: 23.54 years Japanese mean age: 18.68 yearsb | Survey | Humanoid robots | How does the individual’s cultural background influence their expectations for the role of humanoid and animal-like robots? |
Nomura et al. [22] | N = 200 British = 100 Japanese = 100 | UK, Japan | Approximately 20–50 years | Questionnaire | N/Ac | How does the individual’s cultural background influence their social acceptance of humanoid robots? |
Pigni et al. (2012) | N = 188 Focus groups = 59 Questionnaires = 129 | Germany, Spain, Italy | Elderly adults: 65–92 years Relatives: 46–64 years Health professionals and caregivers: 27–63 years | Mixed methods (focus groups and survey) | Verbal description of a teleoperated robotic system | How does individual’s cultural backgrounds influence their requirements and expectations for service robots assisting the elderly? |
Rau et al. [81] | N = 32 German = 16 Chinese = 16 | Germany, China | German mean age: 24.81 years Chinese mean age: 22.44 yearsb | Experiment | Control brick, body parts, and motors from Lego NXT | How does the culture, communication style, and the robot’s language affect the willingness to accept robot recommendations? |
Riek et al. [75] | N = 131 | Africa, SE Asian, Gulf, Shaam | 8–68 years | Survey | Ibn Sina | How does the individual’s cultural background influence their interactions with humanoid robots? |
Rosenthal-von der Putten and Kramer [60] | Adult sample: N = 16 German = 8 Malay = 8 Children sample: N = 22 (German) 5–7 year olds: 11 10–11 year olds: 11 | Germany, Malaysia | Adults: 27–68 years Children: 5–11 years | Interviews | Asimo, AR, Nexi, CB2, HRP-4c, & Geminoid HI-1 | How do cultural differences manifest in our evaluation of and attitudes to human-like robots? How may the concept of uncanny valley account for our negative feelings of robots? |
Rudovic et al. [88] | N = 36 Serbian = 19 Japanese = 17 | Serbia, Japan | 3–13 years | Observational study | NAO | How does the children’s cultural background affect their ability to engage with social robots during autism therapy? |
Salem et al. [69] | N = 92 Native English speakers = 44 Native Arabic speakers = 48 | Native English speakers, Native Arabic speakers | 18–70 years | Experiment | A mannequin with a monitor held in the place of its head | How do our cultures (via languages spoken) impact on our perception and preference of politeness markers in robotic speech? |
Shahid et al. [89] | N = 256 Dutch = 124 Pakistani = 132 | Netherlands, Pakistan | 8–12 years | Experiment | iCat | How does children’s cultural backgrounds influence their experience of interacting with robots? |
Shibata et al. [87] | N = 1854 USA = 123 UK = 440 Sweden = 133 Italy = 95 Brunei = 98 South Korea = 180 Japan = 785 | USA, UK, Sweden, Italy, Brunei, South Korea, Japan | ~ < 9–> 70 years of age (approximate range options were used) | Survey | Paro | How does the individual’s cultural background affect their evaluations of robotic animals? |
Shinozawa et al. [72] | N = 72 American = 36 Japanese = 36 | USA, Japan | Not reported | Experiment | Unnamed entity developed by NTT Cyber Space Laboratories and modified by NTT Communication Science Laboratories | How do the users’ cultural background and the physicality of a robotic agent affect cognitive and social responses? |
Shiomi and Hagita [56] | Survey: N = 400 Americans = 200 Japanese = 200 Field Study: N = 64 Japanese parents = 30 Japanese children = 34 | USA, Japan | Survey: Not reported Field Study: Adults: Not reported Children: preschool age | Mixed method (survey and field study) | Sphero (ball-shaped toy robot); Romo (tank-shaped toy robot) | What are the pre-requisite qualities for a childcare support robot expected by potential end users (childcare workers and parents)? |
Spatola et al. [101] | N = 139 French = 139 | Canada, Spain, Russia, Turkey | Mean age: 21.7 yearsb | Experiment | Industrial robot, Mechanical humanoid robot, Iconic Humanoid robot, Human-like robot | How does information about robots’ country of manufacture and the degree of physical anthropomorphism influence the way they are perceived? |
Suzuki et al. [85] | N = 2 Japanese = 1 Chinese = 1 | Japan, China | Not reported | Experiment | ApriPoco | How does the individual’s cultural background affect perceptions of robotic motions? |
Syrdal et al. (2013) | N = 1146 Westerners = 146 Japanese = 1000 | Western countries (EU/UK, Middle East, US, AUS or NZ), Japan | Westerners: 20–64 years Japanese: not reported | Survey | None specified (verbal descriptions of types of robots) | How do Japanese and Western cultures differ on their attitudes to humanoid robots? |
Torta et al. [91] | N = 16 Austrian = 8 Tel Aviv = 8 | Austria, Tel Aviv | Austria: 70–95 years Tel Aviv: not reported | Survey | Nao | How does users’ cultural background affect elderly evaluations of socially assistive humanoid robots in smart home environments? |
Trovato et al. [84] | N = 61 Egyptian = 31 Japanese = 35 | Egypt, Japan | Mean age: 30.33 yearsb | Experiment | KOBIAN and AL-BIAN | To what extent do humans accept culturally adaptive robots? |
Trovato et al. [97] | N = 101 Westerners = 34 Asians = 13 Japanese = 28 Egyptians = 26 | Western Countries, Asian Countries, Japan, Egypt | Westerners, Asians, and Japanese mean age: 26.9 years Egyptian mean age: 28.8 yearsb | Survey | KOBIAN-R | How does the users’ cultural background affect emotional recognition in robotic faces? |
Trovato et al. [100] | N = 20 | German vs Japanese stimuli were used. Participants were Dutch | Mean age: 22.49 yearsb | Experiment | KOBIAN and DEBIAN | To what extent are similar cultural robotic expressions more preferred? |
Wang et al. [96] | N = 160 teams (320 participants) American = 80 teams (160 participants) Chinese = 80 teams (160 participants) | USA, China | American mean age: 21.31 years Chinese mean age: 21.70 yearsb | Experiment | Mechanoid robotic assistant | To what extent do culturally normative behaviours and communication styles expressed by a robot result in more compliance by human participants? |