1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Previous Example-Based Learning Environments in Controlled/Supervised Experiments
2.2 Risks of Interruptions and Smartphone Related Off-Task Behavior during Web-Based Learning
2.3 Previous Research Assessing Smartphone Usage
3 Hypotheses
4 Method
4.1 Sample and Design
4.2 Web-Based Learning Environment
4.2.1 Training Condition
4.2.2 Control Condition
4.3 Instruments
4.3.1 Learning Time
4.3.2 Declarative Knowledge
4.3.3 Self-Explanation Quality
4.3.4 Mental Effort
4.3.5 Interruptions
4.3.6 Smartphone Usage
4.4 Procedure
5 Results
Measure | Training condition | Control condition | Overall |
---|---|---|---|
Grade1 | 2.48 (0.36) | 2.44 (0.46) | 2.46 (0.41) |
Learning time2 | 35.54 (8.92) | 30.16 (15.69) | 33.02 (12.70) |
Declarative knowledge3 | |||
Pretest | 2.07 (1.33) | 2.19 (1.23) | 2.13 (1.27) |
Posttest | 4.52 (1.37) | 1.81 (1.36) | 3.19 (1.92) |
Self-explanation quality3 | 3.83 (0.57) | 1.01 (0.05) | 2.56 (1.48) |
Subjective mental effort4 | 5.21 (1.19) | 4.91 (2.11) | 5.07 (1.69) |
Interruptions5 | 0.67 (0.78) | 0.88 (0.86) | 0.77 (0.82) |
Mean daily smartphone usage2 | 214.06 (115.83) | 252.46 (154.65) | 235.60 (138.67) |
5.1 Learning Prerequisites
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Smartphone Usage and Task Engagement
Measure | Smartphone usage | Mental effort | Interruptions | Learning time |
---|---|---|---|---|
Smartphone usage | — | −.38* | .35* | .06 |
Mental effort | — | — | −.11 | .11 |
Interruptions | — | — | — | .40* |
Learning time | — | — | — | — |