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2018 | Buch

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Design Thinking Research

Making Distinctions: Collaboration versus Cooperation

herausgegeben von: Prof. Dr. Hasso Plattner, Prof. Dr. Christoph Meinel, Prof. Dr. Larry Leifer

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Buchreihe : Understanding Innovation

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book summarizes the results of Design Thinking Research Program at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, USA and the Hasso Plattner Institute in Potsdam, Germany. Offering readers a closer look at design thinking, its innovation processes and methods, it covers topics ranging from how to design ideas, methods and technologies, to creativity experiments and creative collaboration in the real world, and the interplay between designers and engineers. But the topics go beyond this in their detailed exploration of design thinking and its use in IT systems engineering fields, and even from a management perspective. The authors show how these methods and strategies actually work in companies, and introduce new technologies and their functions. Furthermore, readers learn how special-purpose design thinking can be used to solve thorny problems in complex fields. Thinking and devising innovations are fundamentally and inherently human activities – so is design thinking. Accordingly, design thinking is not merely the result of special courses nor of being gifted or trained: it’s a way of dealing with our environment and improving techniques, technologies and life.

This edition offers a historic perspective on the theoretical foundations of design thinking. Within the four topic areas, various frameworks, methodologies, mindsets, systems and tools are explored and further developed. The first topic area focuses on team interaction, while the second part addresses tools and techniques for productive collaboration. The third section explores new approaches to teaching and enabling creative skills and lastly the book examines how design thinking is put into practice. All in all, the contributions shed light and provide deeper insights into how to support the collaboration of design teams in order to systematically and successfully develop innovations and design progressive solutions for tomorrow.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Introduction: Reflections on Working Together—Through and Beyond Design Thinking

Abstract

Given
- A team-of-teams organization demands collaboration.
- A command-control organization demands cooperation.
The Challenge:
- How might we make the distinction actionable on a day-to-day, session-to-session basis within the enterprise? Can a culture of extreme collaboration co-exist with a culture of extreme cooperation?
- Can we summarize the challenge as the distinction between agreeing and agreeing to DISAGREE? Can we pivot skillfully between these behaviors and remain civil? Does the distinction extend to coordinating?

Larry Leifer, Christoph Meinel

Theoretical Foundations of Design Thinking

Part I: John E. Arnold’s Creative Thinking Theories

Abstract

Design thinking is acknowledged as a thriving innovation practice plus something more, something in the line of a deep understanding of innovation processes. At the same time, quite how and why design thinking works—in scientific terms—appeared an open question at first. Over recent years, empirical research has achieved great progress in illuminating the principles that make design thinking successful. Lately, the community began to explore an additional approach. Rather than setting up novel studies, investigations into the history of design thinking hold the promise of adding systematically to our comprehension of basic principles. This chapter makes a start in revisiting design thinking history with the aim of explicating scientific understandings that inform design thinking practices today. It offers a summary of creative thinking theories that were brought to Stanford Engineering in the 1950s by John E. Arnold.

Julia P. A. von Thienen, William J. Clancey, Giovanni E. Corazza, Christoph Meinel

Modelling and Mapping Teamwork

Frontmatter

Quadratic Model of Reciprocal Causation for Monitoring, Improving, and Reflecting on Design Team Performance

Abstract

Design team performance is a complex phenomenon that involves person, behavior and environment parameters interacting with and influencing each other over time. In this chapter, we propose a quadratic model for team performance that allows for monitoring, improving, and reflecting on design teams at the individual, interactional and environmental levels. This model is an extension of Bandura’s theory of reciprocal causation and a synthesis of concepts from psychology, semiotics, improvisational theater, evolutionary biology, design thinking and innovation practice. We describe the development of the model based on cases of student behavior from a graduate level design course, and discuss its implications for design practice and design research.

Neeraj Sonalkar, Ade Mabogunje, Mark Cutkosky

Breaks with a Purpose

A Three-Dimension Framework to Map Break Characteristics and Their Effects on Design Thinking Teams

Abstract

Breaks are a fundamental part of our work life and have been studied in various settings before. This article investigates their importance and impact within design thinking teams. The research is based on a series of interviews conducted with design thinking team members and coaches in combination with observations of their behavior during and after breaks at the HPI School of Design Thinking. Our analysis shows that breaks in this setting can be characterized by three dimensions: the activity level (active or passive), a social aspect (group or individual) and the distance to the project (related or unrelated to the project). Furthermore, we discuss the effect of these different characteristics on the team and relate our findings to research from other areas.

Franziska Dobrigkeit, Danielly de Paula, Matthias Uflacker

Tools and Techniques for Productive Collaboration

Frontmatter

Mechanical Novel: Crowdsourcing Complex Work Through Reflection and Revision

Abstract

Crowdsourcing systems accomplish large tasks with scale and speed by breaking work down into independent parts. However, many types of complex creative work, such as fiction writing, have remained out of reach for crowds because work is tightly interdependent: changing one part of a story may trigger changes to the overall plot and vice versa. Taking inspiration from how expert authors write, we propose a technique for achieving interdependent complex goals with crowds. With this technique, the crowd loops between reflection, to select a high-level goal, and revision, to decompose that goal into low-level, actionable tasks. We embody this approach in Mechanical Novel, a system that crowdsources short fiction stories on Amazon Mechanical Turk. In a field experiment, Mechanical Novel resulted in higher-quality stories than an iterative crowdsourcing workflow. Our findings suggest that orienting crowd work around high-level goals may enable workers to coordinate their effort to accomplish complex work.

Joy Kim, Sarah Sterman, Allegra Argent Beal Cohen, Michael S. Bernstein

Mosaic: Designing Online Creative Communities for Sharing Works-in-Progress

Abstract

Online creative communities allow creators to share their work with a large audience, maximizing opportunities to showcase their work and connect with fans and peers. However, sharing in-progress work can be technically and socially challenging in environments designed for sharing completed pieces. We propose an online creative community where sharing process, rather than showcasing outcomes, is the main method of sharing creative work. Based on this, we present Mosaic—an online community where illustrators share work-in-progress snapshots showing how an artwork was completed from start to finish. In an online deployment and observational study, artists used Mosaic as a vehicle for reflecting on how they can improve their own creative process, developed a social norm of detailed feedback, and became less apprehensive of sharing early versions of artwork. Through Mosaic, we argue that communities oriented around sharing creative process can create a collaborative environment that is beneficial for creative growth.

Joy Kim, Maneesh Agrawala, Michael S. Bernstein

Investigating Tangible Collaboration for Design Towards Augmented Physical Telepresence

Abstract

While many systems have been designed to support collaboration around visual thinking tools, much less work has investigated how to share and collaboratively design physical prototypes—an important part of the design process. We describe preliminary results from a formative study on how designers communicate and collaborate in design meetings around physical and digital artifacts. Addressing some limitations in current collaboration platforms and drawing guidelines from our study, we introduce a new prototype platform for remote collaboration. This platform leverages the use of augmented reality (AR) for rendering of the remote participant and a pair of linked actuated tabletop tangible interfaces that acts as the participant’s shared physical workspace. We propose the use of actuated tabletop tangibles to synchronously render complex shapes and to act as physical input.

Alexa F. Siu, Shenli Yuan, Hieu Pham, Eric Gonzalez, Lawrence H. Kim, Mathieu Le Goc, Sean Follmer

The Interaction Engine

Abstract

The Interaction Engine is a framework for prototyping interactive, connected devices based on widely available single-board Linux computers. With microcontrollers, networking, and modular open-source software, these modules enable interaction modalities such as audio, video, tangible, and digital interfaces to be embedded into forms that go beyond traditional computing. In this paper, we outline the hardware and software components that make up the general Interaction Engine framework and discuss its benefits for interaction designers. We provide an illustrative case study of the Interaction Engine in use. We ran workshops to introduce designers to the Interaction Engine framework and we describe the projects where they subsequently employed Interaction Engines to understand issues and opportunities presented by this model. In describing the framework and case studies, we intend to shift designer’s thinking of computer as product to computer as material to create new interactive devices.

Nikolas Martelaro, Wendy Ju, Mark Horowitz

Making the Domain Tangible: Implicit Object Lookup for Source Code Readability

Abstract

Programmers collaborate continuously with domain experts to explore the problem space and to shape a solution that fits the users’ needs. In doing so, all parties develop a shared vocabulary, which is above all a list of named concepts and their relationships to each other. Nowadays, many programmers favor object-oriented programming because it allows them to directly represent real-world concepts and interactions from the vocabulary as code. However, when existing domain data is not yet represented as objects, it becomes a challenge to initially bring existing domain data into object-oriented systems and to keep the source code readable. While source code might be comprehensible to programmers, domain experts can struggle, given their non-programming background. We present a new approach to provide a mapping of existing data sources into the object-oriented programming environment. We support keeping the code of the domain model compact and readable while adding implicit means to access external information as internal domain objects. This should encourage programmers to explore different ways to build the software system quickly. Eventually, our approach fosters communication with the domain experts, especially at the beginning of a project. When the details in the problem space are not yet clear, the source code provides a valuable, tangible communication artifact.

Patrick Rein, Marcel Taeumel, Robert Hirschfeld

“… and not building on that”: The Relation of Low Coherence and Creativity in Design Conversations

Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the relation between coherence and creativity in design conversations of innovation teams. Low coherent segments in a conversation can be understood as the linguistic equivalent of shifts of the focus of attention while designing. Focus shifts have a positive influence on ideational productivity. We therefore reason that low coherent speaker turns function as creative stimuli in team conversations. How this works in practice we illustrate with a case study of an innovation team observed in the wild.

Axel Menning, Benedikt Ewald, Claudia Nicolai, Ulrich Weinberg

Teaching, Training, Priming: Approaches to Teaching and Enabling Creative Skills

Frontmatter

The DT MOOC Prototype: Towards Teaching Design Thinking at Scale

Abstract

The increasing demand for learning and experiencing the human-centered approach of design thinking has led to a need for more and broader education formats. In this research project, we investigate how design thinking can be taught to a massive, global audience with the use of digital education. In this chapter, we describe our design thinking MOOC prototype Inspirations for Design. We commence by presenting the research and theoretical foundation on which we created the MOOC’s didactic design and discuss our aims for testing a pilot version of the MOOC and consequently the MOOC prototype. Results from the pilot version and the MOOC prototype are reported and discussed. We end this chapter by presenting deduced ideas for an Inspirations for Design iteration and future digital design thinking learning units and propose adaptations for the openHPI platform to facilitate design thinking education in a MOOC environment.

Mana Taheri, Lena Mayer, Karen von Schmieden, Christoph Meinel

Creativity in the Twenty-first Century: The Added Benefit of Training and Cooperation

Abstract

Creativity is an important construct driving society and innovation forward. Many organizations have adopted team-based work in order to increase innovation and creativity under the assumption that groups of people tend to produce more creative ideas than individuals. Research has so far shown mixed results with some finding enhanced creativity in teams while others showing the opposite effect. A short literature review of team creativity and how it relates to possible neural networks is presented. In addition, we will integrate key findings from our current research implementing a group training protocol to enhance creative capacity. Participants in our creativity study underwent a distilled version of Creative Gym, a course that has been taught at the d.school for the past 8 years that is purely focused on individual creativity skill building in a group environment. Students enhance their creative confidence and sharpen their individual design thinking skills through hands-on experiences that are comprised of unconventional hands-on exercises organized around nine core themes that engage our human abilities in intersecting ways. Training was performed in a group environment while improving perspective taking, empathy, synthesizing ideas and developing improvisational skills. Creativity was measured, before and after participant training (Time 1 and Time 2), using standardized assessments of creativity. In addition to neuroimaging markers, other cognitive faculties (e.g. executive functioning) and personality were also assessed before and after training (Hawthorne, et al. Design thinking research. Springer, 2014). We will review the literature on team creativity and present key findings from our current research, using group based creativity skill training.

Naama Mayseless, Manish Saggar, Grace Hawthorne, Allan Reiss

Priming Designers Leads to Prime Designs

Abstract

Priming has been used by behavioral psychologists to discover many interesting findings regarding human judgments and decisions. This paper offers two studies and a literature review that highlight how designers use priming to fine-tune their skills. In the past, designers have used priming exercises to help them generate more features, novel features, and uncover latent customer needs during conceptualization. This paper presents two newer design methods that actively prime designers to exhibit or accentuate certain skills during the conceptual design process. They both use primes that require active participation from the subject and sensory/perceptual engagement. Study 1 uses priming to improve designers’ product-based communication abilities. Both a low-immersion implicit prime and a high-immersion implicit prime help designers generate more concepts. Additionally, the high-immersion prime leads to better communication of sustainability through the design. Study 2 fosters user-centered originality in design with an explicit priming technique of empathic lead users. This study finds that subjects in the high-immersion priming condition generate design concepts with higher levels of originality and more innovative features targeting product-user interactions, without loss in feasibility. Taken together with findings from other researchers, we conclude that both implicit and explicit priming are promising techniques that can be used to enhance design skills.

Jinjuan She, Carolyn Conner Seepersad, Katja Holtta-Otto, Erin F. MacDonald

From Place to Space: How to Conceptualize Places for Design Thinking

Abstract

More companies have begun to leverage the unused potential of place. By re-designing the work place or introducing new spaces that are dedicated to innovation projects, they are attempting to increase employee motivation, team performance, innovation management, and the overall innovativeness of the whole organization. However, companies often struggle with the proper conceptualization of the place. As a result, they copy spatial setups from other organizations. However, such copied places are often not linked to the corporate culture, do not match their users’ needs, and neglect the existing spatial structures; consequently, their effects remain below their actual potential. One reason for this problem may stem from a lack of knowledge regarding how to conceptualize places for innovation processes in general or Design Thinking in particular. This lack of knowledge also holds true for research because research on the place and its effects in both the organizational and managerial contexts is rather scarce. In this chapter, we address the question of how to conceptualize places for Design Thinking. We first provide relevant theoretical foundations and then explain the conceptualization of a Design Thinking place by using the example of HPI D-School Potsdam. This theoretically founded and practically experienced approach will provide the reader with basic knowledge of how to conceptualize places for Design Thinking and addresses both researchers and practitioners.

Martin Schwemmle, Claudia Nicolai, Marie Klooker, Ulrich Weinberg

Design Thinking in Practice

Frontmatter

Mapping and Measuring Design Thinking in Organizational Environments

Abstract

Dozens of for profit and not for profit organizations across a wide range of sectors explicitly employ Design Thinking as a core innovation methodology. This demonstrates how versatile the tools and frameworks are. It also presents an opportunity to better understand how the organizational environment impacts how design thinking is applied. This chapter covers two studies that explore organizational environments. The first study is the development of a mapping technique called a Design Thinking Ecology that highlights a number of organizational variables and how they interact with design thinking. The second is a case study of a community of design thinking practitioners across four separate companies. Their collaboration highlights the role each organizational context has on the individuals and the group as a whole.

Adam Royalty, Sheri Shepard

Human Technology Teamwork: Enhancing the Communication of Pain Between Patients and Providers

Abstract

There is an urgent need within hospitals to reduce the amount of time that clinicians spend interacting with computers, in order to increase direct patient engagement, complex problem solving abilities, and overall patient satisfaction. This research explores the application of design thinking in health IT systems engineering. It is motivated by a need to: (i) enable clinicians to capture data from patients in a more natural and intuitive way, (ii) increase the amount of time for face-to-face patient interaction, and (iii) increase the speed and accuracy of tasks requiring acute critical thinking skills for complex medical scenarios. Specially, through need-finding with patients and providers at Stanford Health Care, we narrowed the research focus to center on the application of technology to improve the communication of pain between patients and providers during post-operative care. We present must-have and nice-to-have features of an interactive pain management and assessment system, based on input from patients and providers; and illustrate early conceptual prototypes aimed at enhancing the social transaction between patients and caregivers in the communication of pain.

From a design thinking perspective, this research (i) examines the use of technology to capture “a digital story” of patient needs during the course of care; (ii) studies the impact of human augmentation on healthcare team performance; and (iii) explores the ways in which the seamless integration of technology into patients’ and providers’ lives can influence behavior change and health outcomes for situations requiring acute point-of-care interactions, particularly for pain management and assessment. We conclude this book chapter with insights into future work aimed at enhancing the communication of the pain experience between patients and clinicians.

Lauren Aquino Shluzas, David Pickham

Learning from Success and Failure in Healthcare Innovation: The Story of Tele-Board MED

Abstract

Tele-Board MED is a digital documentation system for medical encounters. It is used as an adjunct to talk-based mental health interventions. Having reported study results on Tele-Board MED a number of times—which always reflected the favorable aspects of the system—audiences have also been interested in any failures along the way. Indeed, there are two good reasons why such occasional failures are more than an entertaining footnote to a project. First, design thinking holds that they are critical for learning. Second, innovations in the healthcare sector are known to be particularly challenging. In this chapter, we thus reanalyze the Tele-Board MED project, focusing on both successes and failures along the way and tracing their role for the development of the project.

Anja Perlich, Julia von von Thienen, Matthias Wenzel, Christoph Meinel

The Design Thinking Methodology at Work: Semi-Automated Interactive Recovery

Abstract

The methodology of Design Thinking (DT) suggests a repertoire of methods and techniques that lead to different forms of the DT methodology in practice. Which methods and techniques have been employed is of special interest to stakeholders, such as project managers and researchers. However, the repertoire of these methods and techniques does not convey much concerning the order of employed methods and techniques in practice. Capturing the employed DT methodology is difficult, because the subjectively perceived and objectively employed DT methodology may differ. In our former work, we implemented recovery rules that successfully reconstructed the DT methodology from captured DT project documentation. Our qualitative evaluation shows that the methodology could be reconstructed without human intervention with a confidence of approx. 50–80%. However, in order to draw valid conclusions about DT methodologies use a higher level of confidence must be achieved. Therefore, to proceed from a qualitative to quantitative analysis of employed DT methodologies we extended our recovery approach to a semi-automated recovery approach to (a) increase the completeness and accuracy of the reconstructed methodology and (b) use insights gained during the semi-automated recovery to enhance the recovery rules.

In this chapter, we report on our extended semi-automated recovery approach. As a preliminary result of our experiments, we conclude that our semi-automated interactive recovery approach can be employed to increase the completeness and accuracy of the reconstructed methodology. By using insights gained during the semi-automated recovery to enhance the recovery rules and therefore allow to proceed from a qualitative to quantitative analysis of used DT methodologies.

Joachim Hänsel, Holger Giese

Abracadabra: Imagining Access to Creative Computing Tools for Everyone

Abstract

How might we empower anyone to create anything? Designers may dream of whimsical ideas, and then turn these ideas into physical prototypes. Armed with duct-tape, cardboard and illusion, “Wizard of Oz” prototypes may communicate the essence of an idea using only raw materials found in every household. However, for electronic prototyping, the tools needed to create functional devices may not be accessible to technical novices. Physical Computing tools with electronics, sensors, actuators, programmable microcontrollers and microcomputers, are increasing in their affordability, but the tools and knowledge needed to combine these parts may not be readily accessible to the average citizen. Here we examine prototyping through the lens of Creative Computing, and propose that accessibility is the cornerstone of electronic prototyping tools. We explore accessibility through an observational case study of a designer prototyping a smart electronic device. We show that typical electronics prototyping tools have significant accessibility barriers to the everyday novice. This work underscores the need to find new ways of designing Creative Computing tools to be more accessible to the everyday dreamer.

Joel Sadler, Lauren Aquino Shluzas, Paulo Blikstein

Titel: Design Thinking Research
herausgegeben von: Prof. Dr. Hasso Plattner
Prof. Dr. Christoph Meinel
Prof. Dr. Larry Leifer
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-60967-6
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-60966-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60967-6