Introduction
Materials and methods
Site description
Site name | Surface type | Latitude (°N) | Longitude (°W) | Elevation (m) | Data years | Primary citation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
APO-M | Glacier ablation area | 74.625 | 21.376 | 660 | 2012–2013 | Citterio et al. (2010) |
ZAC-F | Wet tundra (fen) | 74.481 | 20.555 | 40 | 2012–2014 | Stiegler et al. (2016) |
ZAC-H | Dry tundra (heath) | 74.473 | 20.550 | 40 | 2012–2014 | Lund et al. (2012) |
NUK-L | Ice sheet ablation area | 64.482 | 49.533 | 540 | 2014–2015 | Van As et al. (2014) |
KOB-F | Wet tundra (fen) | 64.131 | 51.386 | 50 | 2013–2015 | Westergaard-Nielsen et al. (2013) |
Monitoring data
APO-M | ZAC-F | ZAC-H | NUK-L | KOB-F | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meteorology | |||||
Radiometer | Kipp & Zonen CNR1 (3) | Kipp & Zonen CNR4 (4) | Kipp & Zonen CNR1 & CNR4 (4) | Kipp & Zonen CNR1 (3) | Kipp & Zonen CNR4 (3) |
Air temperature/relative humidity | Rotronic MP100 (3) | Campbell Sci. CS215 (3) | Vaisala HMP 45D (2) | Rotronic MP100 (3) | Vaisala HMP 45D (2) |
Wind speed | R.M. Young 05103-5 (3) | Gill HS-50 (3) | Gill R3-50 (3) | R.M. Young 05103-5 (3) | Gill R3-50 (2) |
Wind direction | R.M. Young 05103-5 (3) | Gill HS-50 (3) | Gill R3-50 (3) | R.M. Young 05103-5 (3) | Gill R3-50 (2) |
Barometric pressure | Setra 278 (1) | Setra 278 (1) | Vaisala PTB101B (1) | Setra 278 (1) | Setra 278 (2) |
Snow depth | Campbell Sci. SR50a (3) | Campbell Sci. SR50a (4) | Campbell Sci. SR50a (4) | Campbell Sci. SR50a (3) | Campbell Sci. SR50a (3) |
Subsurface temperature | Thermistors (−1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8) | Thermistors (−0.02, −0.1, −0.5) | Thermistors (−0.02, −0.1, −0.4) | Thermistors (−1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −10) | Thermistors (−0.05, −0.1, −0.5) |
Ground heat flux | – | Hukseflux HFP01 (−0.05) | Hukseflux HFP01 (−0.05) | – | Hukseflux HFP01 (−0.05) |
Eddy covariance | |||||
3D sonic anemometer | – | Gill HS-50 (3) | Gill R3-50 (3) | – | Gill R3-50 (2) |
H2O gas analyser | – | LI-COR 7200 (3) | LI-COR 7000 (3) | – | LI-COR 7000 (2) |
Data analyses
Results and discussion
Radiation budget
Surface energy balance
Importance of snow
Importance of clouds
Years | Period | APO-M | ZAC-F | ZAC-H | NUK-L | KOB-F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2012 | Snow-freea
| 0.1 (266) | −41.1 (1296) | −39.9 (1231) | n/a | −123.7 (565) |
2012/13 | Winterb
| 13.6 (32) | 19.2 (214) | 23.5 (214) | n/a | 26.9 (419) |
2013 | Snow-free | −4.0 (358) | −63.1 (1494) | −59.1 (1494) | n/a | −96.7 (547) |
2013/14 | Winter | 29.0 (99) | 37.7 (326) | 35.0 (326) | 28.3 (180) | 34.4 (322) |
2014 | Snow-free | n/a | −52.8 (733) | −57.6 (732) | 11.4 (152) | −122.8 (888) |
2014/15 | Winter | n/a | n/a | n/a | 31.2 (65) | 36.2 (197) |
2015 | Snow-free | n/a | n/a | n/a | 24.8 (252) | −151.2 (730) |
Conclusions
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The main differences between tundra and ice sites during summer include large differences in surface temperatures, sensible heat flux having opposite signs, and surface melt being the most important energy sink for ice sites. For tundra energy is used for sensible and latent heat flux warming the atmospheric boundary layer and ground heat flux lead to soil heating and permafrost thaw.
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The end-of-winter snow depth, timing of snow melt and the length of the snow-free season are controlling factors for SEB across surface types. Longer snow-free periods increase melting of glaciers and ice sheet, whereas for tundra, earlier snow melt may promote permafrost thaw, although hydrological changes affecting soil thermal conductivity may modulate thaw rates.
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The impacts of cloudiness on SEB are sensitive to surface type, time of year and cloud characteristics. During winter, clouds limit energy losses through longwave radiation across surface types. During summer, clouds have a cooling effect over tundra and a warming effect over ice surfaces, primarily because of the differences in surface albedo.