Planning of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems, Electric Vehicles and Microgrid

This chapter provides an overview of renewable energy, electric vehicles, microgrids or smart grids and their various applications. In the modern era, utilization of renewable energy sources is growing fast in different combinations of hybrid systems due to enormous availability and various technoeconomic advantages. A hybrid renewable energy system integrates different non-renewable and renewable sources along with storage systems to maintain system reliability and resiliency. Electric vehicles (EVs) are more efficient in energy saving, emission reduction and environmental protection than fuel-operated vehicles. As a result, EVs are becoming important with different applications in the transportation sector to reduce global warming. The adoption of EVs required sufficient charging infrastructure globally for the sustainable and regular operation of it's facilities. Therefore, the analysis of the impacts of EVs on the distribution grid/microgrid/smart grid is necessary for a reliable and economic operation of the system. The bidirectional electrical power flows with two-way digital control and communication capabilities have poised the energy producers and utilities to restructure the conventional power system into a robust smart distribution grid. These new functionalities and applications provide a pathway for clean energy technology. Further details in these areas are also presented here to get quick knowledge about advantages, utilization, and applications in these mentioned eras.

A hybrid system consists of conventional and nonconventional energy systems for the achievement of reliable operation to keep the balance between energy supply and load demand. Various methods have been employed for planning and sizing of the hybrid energy system to get optimal location. Due to weather conditions, some renewable energy sources such as solar and wind energy may be unable to provide continuous supply. In addition, stability is an important issue. This may be voltage stability, frequency stability, and rotor angle stability. Different optimization techniques have been developed for optimizing the parameters of the hybrid energy system. This manuscript deals with a review of different hybrid energy systems with optimization techniques to achieve their best optimal location and sizing. Some planning methods have been reviewed with in this manuscript and focused on the development of a new hybrid energy system with advanced techniques.

In the present era of smart technologies, the power sector has highly benefited as monitoring, supervision, and control have moved toward the intelligent power delivery. High-quality power estimation, self-healing, and machine-to-machine communication-based approaches have been appreciated to achieve more reliable and secured smart grids (SG). Renewable energy sources (RES), mainly solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are intermittent in nature and wisely utilized in power generation either as stand-alone or grid connected. Energy sector is focused on RES to reduce carbon footprint and affordable energy to all. Prediction, decision-making, and fast healing for recovery after faults in system, are prime objectives for fault diagnosis and condition monitoring of RES. Classical PV fault diagnosis schemes are available, which basically follow the general process of detection, feature extraction, and classification of fault data. Enormous data has to be handled by the processors either offline or online. In this chapter, fault detection schemes for handling preprocessing of raw data from various sensors through wire or wireless-based time domain or frequency domain methods like Fourier transform, Wavelet transform along with novel approaches based on the internet of things (IoT) have been rigorously reviewed. Traditional as well as advanced artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and emerging approaches for PV fault classification and mitigation have been discussed thoroughly. Along with comprehensive and critical literature review, a smart PV fault classification scheme is proposed for the enhancement of the performance of solar PV systems.

Global energy crisis and the ongoing transition toward green energy has necessitated the integration of renewable energy generation systems into the grid. This calls for an efficient and reliable energy management system that promotes a sense of balance between supply and demand of energy, reduces power loses and unanticipated peak loads, etc., for stable operation. Centralized optimization of energy resources is prevalent, but a demand response method is also proposed, wherein, the consumers adjust their power consumption to not exceed the generation. This book chapter gives a comprehensive idea about different energy management techniques and their requirement with an emphasis on the currently under process and more sophisticated energy-saving algorithms, that can benefit various stakeholders in the grid system.

This review aims to get detailed information about biological reactions in biogas production and the Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) approach for biogas upgrading system based on biogas system installed at Rewa Engineering College, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. The first part of this paper is the pretreatment of microbes, fungal reactions, enzymatic reactions, and metabolic engineering methods. The second part of this paper presents the up-gradation of biogas and their reaction with the PSA technique. The impacts of advancement of biogas production and their potential in advance improving the biogas industry are widely scrutinized. Methane (CH4) (50–65%) in biogas obtained from biogas digester also consists of ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (1–2%), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) (1–2%), and carbon dioxide (CO2) (25–40%).

Z-source inverter (ZSI) is a new topology in power converter, especially in DC–AC converter at a very interesting power level. For instance, it only uses a single-stage power converter with the ability of buck–boost characteristic operations. This work introduces a combination of a solar system with unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) based Z-source inverter for reducing the voltage swell and harmonics under the sudden addition of a balanced three-phase nonlinear load. This article additionally proposed another mixture MPPT system, which is the combination of perturbation and observation (P&O) and incremental conductance (InC) methodologies. The modeling and simulation of the proposed UPQC with ZSI has been executed in MATLAB/Simulink for relief of voltage swell and harmonics and the obtained results are contrasted and UPQC with VSI and CSI.

Fossil fuels are the origins of conventional energy production, which has been progressively transformed into modern innovative technologies with an emphasis on renewable sources such as wind, solar, and hydrothermal. Recently, the challenges concerning the environment and energy, the growth of clean and renewable energy-storage devices have drawn much attention. Renewable energy sources are the primary choice, which addresses some critical energy issues like energy security and climate change. But, renewable energy sources have interrupted and irregular supplies that should be stored in efficient, safe, efficient, reliable, affordable, and clean ways. Hence, energy storage is a critical issue to advance the innovation of energy storage for a sustainable prospect. Thus, there are various kinds of energy storage technologies such as chemical, electromagnetic, thermal, electrical, electrochemical, etc. The benefits of energy storage have been highlighted first. The classification of energy storage technologies and their progress has been discussed in this chapter in detail. Then metal–air batteries, supercapacitors, compressed air, flywheel, thermal energy, superconducting magnetic, pumped hydro, and hybrid energy storage devices are critically discussed. Finally, the recent progress, problems, and future prospects of energy storage systems have been forwarded. The chapter is vital for scholars and scientists, which provides brief background knowledge on basic principles of energy storage systems.

This chapter discusses the electrolysis process used to produce green hydrogen from renewable energy sources and the conversion of hydrogen into electrical energy by using fuel cells. Hydrogen can be produced from renewable energy sources, stored, and used whenever electrical energy is required by the loads. The process of electrolysis is the use of electrical energy and water to produce hydrogen. The different electrolyzers: solid oxide, alkaline, and proton exchange membrane have different characteristics and efficiencies. The cost of hydrogen production depends on the worth of renewable energy systems and hydrogen production equipment. On the other hand, the overall efficiency of hydrogen production depends on the renewable energy system efficiency. So, the optimization of the renewable energy system and the selection of adequate sites are characterized by their high renewable energy potential allow maximizing the effectiveness of hydrogen production. The design of a photovoltaic system to generate the electrical energy required to produce 100 kg of hydrogen per day highlights the potential future of green hydrogen produced from solar energy using photovoltaic systems. This hydrogen gas power station requires the installation of 2662.2 kWp of the PV system to produce 13,311 kWh of electrical energy per day to run four proton exchange membrane electrolyzers during 5 h per day. The produced hydrogen can be used to charge fuel cell vehicles, generate electricity for buildings during the night, or be transported to be consumed in any other industrial applications.

Global warming concerns have led developing as well as developed countries to promote the use of clean & green energy more than ever. Electric vehicle seems to be one of the most adaptable option to counter the concern. But to tackle environmental issues with electric vehicles, there are other factors that need to be addressed and understood. This chapter will showcase the impact of electric vehicle penetration on the power distribution grid and how the impact can be minimized using an optimization technique. The effects of introducing electric vehicles on the voltage profile, cost of generation, active and reactive power losses are discussed in view of emerging markets like India. A 69–bus system is considered for this study and different loads are applied to each branch of the system. A gradual increase in the load is provided and using AC- Optimal Power Flow (OPF) method, behaviour and impacts of different parameters is calculated and compared graphically. Finally, the Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) optimization technique has been employed to find the optimal location for EV charging stations Graphical comparisons are also done between base cases, scenario cases and systems with EV charging stations to reach a conclusion.

Electric vehicle (EV) plays an important role to escape from environmental issues like increasing air pollution and limited stock of fossil fuel. EVs run on an electric motor, which is powered by its onboard rechargeable battery. EVs need a charging station to fulfil the energy demand of the battery. Recently, the penetration of EVs is increasing drastically in the modern power system. Therefore, the optimal planning of the electric vehicle charging stations (EVCSs) is necessary. The charging stations should maintain the power system parameters as well as it should provide services to the maximum EV users, which is a challenging job to the system planning engineers. However, the environmental benefits of EVs cannot be achieved if renewable energy resources are not incorporated into the system. The renewable-based distributed generation (DG) also helps to reduce the losses and improve the voltage profile of the system. Therefore, the distribution system with the charging stations must be renewably supported. However, the flow of EVs and generation from renewables are uncertain which is a matter of concern. This chapter describes the available planning for EVCSs in different distribution networks along with their methodologies. The results are also analyzed with their merits and demerits. The results of differenttypes of literature review show that the optimal allocation of charging stations helps to reduce the power loss of the distribution system as well asthe installation cost. Optimal allocation of DG contributes to additional power loss minimization. Moreover, technical information and specifications about EV and its charging infrastructure are presented in this chapter. The uncertain attributes associated with EV and DG are described. Also, the steps of different established methods to handle uncertainties are explained in this chapter.

Although renewable sources of energy provide multiple benefits, their intermittent nature makes it difficult for application as individual sources of energy. A hybrid renewable energy system integrates different non-renewable and renewable sources along with storage systems to overcome this drawback. This work aims to shed light on the various techno-economic aspects of HRES discussed in recent papers. Also the different components and their mathematical modelling have been highlighted. Diverse range of optimizing techniques used for sizing and optimization of cost, reliability and environmental parameters has been discussed. A brief look at the applications studied in recent papers is taken and future prospects have been discussed. Additionally, In this work, the case study of rural area of West Bengal is presented. The study location is Digha village (21° 37.6’N, 87° 30.4’E), West Bengal, India. The techno-economic analysis using HOMER software of hybrid renewable energy system is presented for possible best optimized solution based on Reliability, Net present costs and Levelized Cost of Energy.

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a necessary and primary concern in modern photovoltaic (PV) energy systems. The nonlinear nature of the output characteristics of PV systems causes it to supply maximum amount of power at a particular point of operation which is known as the maximum power point (MPP). For optimal utilization of the PV modules effective tracking of this particular operating point is necessary for most of the PV energy systems. Over the years, many different approaches have been proposed for maximum power point tracking in PV energy systems. But most of these literatures do not draw a complete picture of the design, control and operation process of the whole system involved in MPPT. To alleviate such difficulties, this chapter discusses the MPPT system in an exhaustive manner using a novel integrated model of the system for designing robust and effective controllers for MPPT. This chapter considers a system where a PV module is connected to a DC-DC converter system for demonstrating the process. Firstly, a novel small-signal model of the system where a PV module is connected to any of the three basic DC to DC converters is obtained by utilizing the perturbation and linearization method on the available large signal models. Then, using these small-signal models, generalized transfer function models of the systems are obtained by application of simple circuit theory. The intrinsic nonlinearities of the system and other inherent factors that create difficulty in controller design are also pointed out. As an effective solution to this problem of nonlinearity, the design and implementation process of a gain-scheduled PID controller for controlling such highly non-linear systems is presented. Moreover, the design and implementation of an MPPT control loop around the voltage control loop are described using some advanced computation-based algorithms, namely, Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Differential Evolution Algorithm (DEA) and Binary Coded Genetic Algorithm (BCGA) for MPPT. In addition to that, a comparative analysis of the three metaheuristic algorithms implemented here is also presented in this chapter. All the discussed theoretical aspects were validated through simulation in MATLAB/SIMULUNK implementing various real-world scenarios such as partial shading, load disturbance, etc. The novel modeling approach, the systematic control system design approach, the MPPT algorithm design methods and implementation and their comparative analysis can be of great usefulness to a designer.

Though the available models cannot produce the efficiency or power as Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT), the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) design in recent works was reviewed for its aesthetic value and efficiency. This review will be a useful guide to modify available design for any intended purpose or provide a futuristic design which can be efficient in power generation and be an ornamental device. Besides these, the overview of recent researches in the field of wind turbine technology is covered in this book chapter. The work provides the guide to design VAWT with the information about the implementation of farm, reduction of noise, and computational techniques used in recent researches. The review of this kind always has greater importance because of the up to date information about the ongoing researches.

In this work, aerodynamic modelling of HAWT rotors and energy yield prediction using power curve are studied. The influence of wake losses and rotor solidity on the performance of HAWT is investigated using blade element momentum theory (BEMT). Empirical corrections to a rotor thrust and induced velocities proposed by Glauert, Buhl and Wilson–Walker were evaluated for various Prandtl tip loss factors and validated with experiment thrust data. For axial induction factor less than 0.5, the maximum thrust coefficient obtained using BEMT varied between 0 and 1. When the axial induction factor exceeded 0.5, the Glauert thrust correction factor showed discontinuity for which standard BEMT is invalid. Power coefficient was evaluated for various rotor lift to drag ratios with a rotor diameter of 36 m. The results demonstrated a 17% increase in power coefficient when lift to drag ratios is increased up to three times for tip speed ratios less than 7. A maximum change of ~50% in the power coefficient is obtained when the blade count is increased from one to three. Power curves for 2 MW machine with a diameter of 95 m at two air densities of 1.225 and 1.115 kg/m3 showed a maximum power error of 29% at cut in wind speed. Time series of 10-min averaged data showed that nominal power is obtained when the blade pitch angle position varied between 0° and 5°. Bin analysis also revealed that maximum value for power coefficient obtained is 0.43, while thrust coefficient of 0.94 at wind speed of 7.6 m/s. Energy yield for a 2 MW turbine is also predicted based on two parameter Weibull distribution for different scale and shape factors.

The tremendous increase in pollution levels caused by automobiles energized through fossil fuels as well as the eventual depletion of these fuels has led to an increase in the interest for electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Electric vehicles (EVs) provide cleaner means of transportation with the pollution being limited to the locations of electric power generating plants. They are the vehicles of the future, without any doubt. There has been a tremendous amount of research in EV technology in recent times, and a lot of research has reached mature levels. The only impediment to the complete commercial use of EVs is the energy sources required to power them. In this chapter, we take a look at the conventional sources of energy for EVs, their current status and developments, as well as technologies to look out for in the future. The focus is on the basic working principles of these sources without delving too much into their chemical reactions.

This research work presents an overview of the technique of wireless power transmission (WPT) for electric vehicles (e-vehicles) and solar vehicles. E-vehicles are the new era in the world of automobiles aiming to modernize the fuel-free transport mechanism. WPT is an efficient mechanism for charging the e-vehicles using electromagnetic waves and renewable energy. The working model comprises two parts: the transmitting unit consists of an inductive coil placed underground and the receiving unit consists of inductive coil and rectifying circuit placed inside the vehicle. The roof of the parking lot is covered with solar cells (green energy). The sun rays gathered by the solar panel are converted to electrical energy and stored in the battery placed underground. This battery is connected to the primary winding of the transformer while the secondary winding is placed inside the vehicle. During the parking hours as the secondary winding comes in line of sight with the primary winding, energy transfer starts automatically and charges the battery. The experimental study shows that the battery of the vehicle takes 30% less time to charge compared to conventional means. The significance of this research is that the e-vehicles are charged using green technology (solar energy) instead of the conventional power grid energy.

Microgrids and smart grids are emerging as the latest trending aspect in power industries. The smart grid integrates the technology dealing with Information and Communication in almost all aspects of power systems starting from electricity generation till consumption in order to improve the reliability of energy consumption and service, minimize the environmental impact, enable active participation of the consumers, new products and markets, improves the efficiency leading to more safe and reliable energy production and distribution. The other benefits include reducing carbon emission, supports the increased use of electric vehicles and creates wider opportunities for employment. Smart grids can be seen as a combination of microgrids and mini grids among which microgrid plays a major role in accomplishing authentic and more secure energy supply for retail load as well as distributed generation. On the other hand, microgrid can be seen as a decentralized energy system comprising distributed energy sources with demand management, storage and generations with loads which are capable of operating either in parallel or independently. Despite the benefits, smart grid as well as microgrids face several power quality-related issues and challenges which are to be met out in order to avail the entire benefits of this emerging technology. The challenges faced by the smart grid and microgrid can be categorized as two, viz., wide variations in power quality which are unpredictable including, slow voltage changes, frequency deviations, harmonics, flicker and unbalance. Events including rapid voltage changes, dips, swells and interruptions. The disturbances and variations in power quality are mainly caused due to harmonic emission by power electronic devices, interference between power line carrier communication and devices, immunity of the devices and weakening of the transmission grid. This chapter aims to identify the root cause for the above-said power quality issues and challenges and investigation of various mitigation techniques.

Installing Small Electric Vehicle (SEV) in India can potentially act as substitute for taxi/cabs in urban areas where new vehicles can’t be deployed considering traffic and stringent emission norms proposed by the government. To expedite this, a quadricycle is benchmarked for retro-fitment and new design is proposed for purpose-built SEV including floor mounted battery pack. Modular electric platform is also investigated with various iterations in powertrain including the front and rear mounting possibilities of motor and battery pack, respectively, for retro-fitted one. Structural stress analysis is performed to find out the maximum possible weight of the battery pack to fit on the floor for purpose-built one. The concept design has a tubular structure for chassis and materials for the chassis are varied to mount the battery pack of weight 200 kg on the floor of SEV. The design of experiments is done on chassis materials for estimating the lowest possible curb weight of SEV. Based on modular battery pack design, a maximum of 23% weight reduction is possible following the curb weight of the Internal Combustion (IC) engine variant of the benchmarked small passenger car. In electric motor, the parameters of interest are motor speed, motor torque and motor efficiency where altering the number of poles leads to maximization in SEV performance. Vehicle parameters such as maximum speed, vehicle acceleration, final drive gear reduction ratio, and battery pack current are compared with the energy economy of the small electric vehicle. The battery pack is designed to fit under the front hood of the vehicle, whereas the motor is fitted at the rear. The driving range is estimated using Simulink and it is validated with mathematical calculation using Peukert method performed in MATLAB. It is concluded that the designed vehicle with Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) 6/4 configuration of 15 kW, 110 Nm is showing enough capability on the replication of urban car in 2020 targets. For the betterment of range, NCA chemistry is preferred over other lithium-ion chemistries. This chapter provides a complete look of electric powertrain for SEV and its design characteristics through retro-fitted and purpose-built one and its application where electric mobility can be installed seamlessly.

In the National Development Council (NDC), India decided to enhance the renewable power share by 40% to its installed capacity by 2030. Indian government has 40 GW rooftop solar installation planned by 2022. Solar energy received by India varies from 4 kWh/m2 during rainy season months to 7 kWh/m2 during summer season with total sunny days of 300 per year. In 2015, Maharashtra Energy Regulatory Commission (MERC), Maharashtra state of India, permitted Rooftop Solar PV (RTSPV) system power to be connected to the distribution grid through net-metering. Industrial and commercial sectors preferred to install the SPV panels either on rooftop of building or on barren land in the premises. Various economic models of RTSPV are in place. Availability of solar energy and electricity requirements for academic institutions are coinciding with one another, which eliminates the storage requirement. Technical institutes require a large amount of power as compared to Science and Art institutes. The Maharashtra State Electricity Distribution Company Limited (MSEDCL), a distribution licensee in Maharashtra is charging an educational institute as per the tariff of HT consumer-Public Services category. As per policy of cross-subsidy, tariffs are on a higher side for the institutes. To reduce the financial burden of electricity bills, solar energy is the best option for these institutes. Variation in power generation by RTSPV occurs due to daily and seasonal variation of solar radiation. RTSPV generates active power only which results in different demand characteristics than the customer using grid supply only to meet the existing load. In this chapter, the performance analysis of a 400 kWp grid-tied RTSPV plant for the last 4 years is presented, and various challenges and issues related with interconnection of RTSPV to distribution grids are discussed. Study of system reveals that all solar power generated is consumed in the institute on all working days only on weekends and holidays export of power took place. The active power consumption is reduced to more than 50% but the reactive power required has increased. It was found that the payback period is low for net metering as compared to gross metering.

Electric vehicles (EVs), including Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), have recently become more common in the transportation sector. As the current fashion shows, the electrical transportation mode is most probably going to replace the internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in coming days. EVs have a notable influence on electrical power systems and other related sectors and also on environment. The current power sector can suffer enormous instability with high EV integration with the electric grid; however, with proper coordination and management, smart grid concept can be successfully implemented with EVs playing a major role. There are also opportunities for enormous economic consequences, as EVs can dramatically lower the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission levels emitted by the transportation vehicles. Though there are some significant barriers for EVs to resolve before functionalizing internal combustion engine vehicles. Industrial motor drives mainly concern with operations at motor base speed. Electric vehicle motor drives deal with operations that require sudden start and stop, low-speed operations, and base speed operations as well. The system should meet the objective of variable speed, variable torque applications like Electric Vehicles (EVs). As per studies, brushless direct-current (BLDC) motor is found to be a suitable motive element for EV application based on its suitable torque speed characteristics. In medium-sized electric vehicle, BLDC motor drive that is fed by a rectangular A.C. supply has shown much promising results than other types of motors. Permanent magnet brushless D.C motor drive is a perfect choice to be utilized in the EV propulsion system, with benefits such as removal of the brushes, capability to generate higher torque than other motors operating at the same voltage and current magnitudes, high efficiency, and power density. Since BLDC motor has been used widely in automotive, it is tested for simulation profiles and then is integrated in the HEV system model in MATLAB Simulink. The fuel economies also showed that the combination of selected motor and engine is efficient and has very high potential in market.

Battery charging is a very critical activity for using its electric storage capability and incorrect procedure affects its efficiency and health. The charging process plays a key role in evaluating the life of the battery. Overcharging results in high temperature in the battery, which degrades the chemical composition of the electrolyte. The conventional charging techniques such as constant current, constant voltage, and constant current-constant voltage (CC-CV) charging techniques are used for charging a battery but the problem like gas formation, grid corrosion, and sulfation is faced in extending the life of the battery. The various parameters such as ensuring battery full-service life, temperature rise, and gas evolution during charge, state of charge (SOC), charging efficiency in AH and WH, and charging time are to be considered when designing a battery charger. In this paper, the charging techniques have been analyzed in terms of charging time, charging efficiency, circuit complexity, and propose an effective charging technique. This paper also includes development in lead–acid battery technology and highlights some drawbacks of conventional charging techniques.

PID (proportional–integral–derivative) control is the quicker control approaches. It has an uncomplicated control arrangement which was grasped by plant engineers and which they got comparatively manageable to tune. As various control processes employing PID have confirmed adequate, it still has a broad range of applications in automated control. Meanwhile, various researchers in the area of process control system observed that the design of PID controller is very tedious if the plant is highly nonlinear. Controller synthesis is a very difficult task for an unstable system because there are closed-loop performance and specific configuration constraints that range and narrow available solutions. These restrictions reveal peaks in sensitivity functions, overshoots, and overall system bandwidth. Selection of PID control design approach and arrangement is based on considerably a previous theory of the plant demands and process dynamics. The two most common conventional PID tuning procedures were the frequency response (cycling) and time response (reaction curve) experiment followed by proportional control. This chapter mainly focuses on the design and analysis of PID tuning for an unstable system. A related investigation of conventional (Pessen integral rule) and real-time online tuning techniques is also represented based on individual simulation examinations. The study confirms the effectiveness of suitable tuning techniques to regulate the unstable system for getting the desired performance.

Due to the increasing adverse effect of global warming and the serious concern related to the depletion of fossil fuels our society is moving rapidly towards the use of electric vehicle. Nowadays, electric vehicles are preferred since they are environment friendly as they emit less greenhouse gases and less pollutant than conventional drives. The improvements in power electronic technologies have made it possible to achieve optimum performance of electrical vehicles for different load conditions. Freshly adopted techniques for driving the electric vehicles driven by induction motor which is utilized by the industries and the civilized society as well as associations that moves into viable expertise and recommended choice for the use of electric vehicles. In this paper investigation has been done over drive systems and different loss minimization techniques for EVs so that the controller can be designed for enhancing the efficiency of induction motor in every load condition by inclusion of core losses. This paper gives an evaluation and assessment over various loss minimization techniques used while driving the induction motor. It would help to operate the motor smoothly at optimum torque by elevating the efficiency/performance of the system during high load as well as in light load conditions. The various loss minimization methods generalize the system operation by reducing the copper loss and iron loss, reduced torque and speed control of the system. As the benefits of electric vehicle, countries can meet the environmental targets as well as provide the best alternative for the conventional drives by achieving the desired performance as required by the society and industries.

LVDC microgrid is considered as the desired solution against the continuous increase of load demand which is powered by renewable energy sources (RESs) which upholds stability between energy needs and supply. The LVDC may escalate the trustworthy and energy-efficient electrical network compared with the existing AC network in many aspects. This chapter discusses the different possible and most efficient control architectures available for the stable operation of DC microgrids. The controls are categorized as decentralized, centralized, and distributed control, which is used for overall control, and communication purpose. In decentralized control, the adaptive control equipped with the droop coefficient, power line signal, and data bus signal is mainly used. In centralized control, the digital communication network will be set up which will allow connecting the source and load controller and will be controlled by central control. Whereas in distributed control, the digital communication link will be set up through a set of local controls which will provide the DC bus voltage at a constant magnitude and may enhance the output current sharing with a proportional-integral (PI) controller. The Local controls are based on voltage control, current control, and droop control. This chapter emphasizes the detailed design architecture of control techniques, their key aspects, communication dynamics, functionalities, and suitable applicability. The chapter also illustrates various other control techniques used in DC microgrids such as droop control, inverse droop control, modified droop control, adaptive droop control, master-slave control, virtual impedance method, etc. which will be engaged in the direction of the power, load sharing, electrical power flow control among the several other inline DC microgrid, and the trouble-free switching and significant drop in power loss.

In this chapter, a complete charging solution is proposed, which consists of optimal allocation of Electric Vehicles Charging Station (EVCS), optimal assignment of charging station to each EV, which is followed by an optimal charging strategy to reduce the daily cost of charging considering Grid to Vehicle (G2V) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G) dual-mode of operation. In this respect, a multilevel algorithm is proposed, where, in the first level, the optimal allocation of EVCS has been done at IEEE 33-bus system with the objective to minimize the power loss in the system by considering various constraints. In the second level, apt charging station for each and every EV has been identified where they can reach at minimal battery energy consumption. This is followed by a smart charging strategy considering the coordination of both G2V and V2G dual-mode of maneuver with the objective to maximize the profit by reducing the daily cost of charging for both CSO and EV owners, considering various practical constraints, in the third level of algorithm. But, while performing all these tasks, several driving cycle features like daily mileage, arrival time, departure time, initial SOC (State-of-Charge), Departure SOC, ensuing trip length after leaving the charging station are required, which is uncertain in nature for each and every vehicle. Day to day basis, it could vary. Hence, seasonal variation is one of the major factors which needs to be incorporated while doing such work. To deal with uncertainties related with driving cycles, a 2m Point Estimation Method (2m PEM) is chosen. Later, using statistical analysis (i.e., Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and Quade Test) the robustness and consistency of the proposed algorithm is established.

The integration of renewable energy, particularly wind and solar, is being done on a large scale in the modern power system. The installation of these technologies was earlier limited to onshore, but with advancements in technology and increasing land requirements, these renewable energy generations are gradually shifting offshore. There are multiple advantages associated with offshore renewable power generations, such as the proper utilization of the potential of renewable resources without hindrance. Improvement of the annual capacity factor of renewable power plants is another major factor in moving offshore locations. Wind and solar resources are often complementary in nature; hence, with many wind power plants already in place, it might be a good option to install solar PV with the existing infrastructure, which will reduce its seasonal intermittency and also increase the capacity factor. For the maximum utilization of these sources, optimal placement of wind turbines (WTs) and solar PV panels in an offshore location is an inevitable part of planning for setting up hybrid wind and solar PV offshore power plants. This chapter mainly focuses on the layout optimization of offshore hybrid wind and solar PV plants to improve system-level planning to maximize the energy output. The generation from the offshore hybrid plants needs to be optimized considering wake effect and tower shadow effect loss on wind turbines and solar panels, respectively, to improve the overall efficacy of the hybrid offshore plants. This chapter also deals with different aspects of mathematical modeling of the wind and solar PV systems to calculate the wake and tower shadow losses while determining the optimal layout of large-scale hybrid offshore wind-solar PV plants.

In recent years, the market of the brushless Permanent Magnet (PM) motors, such as Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) and Brushless Direct Current Motor (BLDCM) drives, has become huge due to demand of the Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). However, brushless PM drives are less robust compared to other types of motor drives due to the high acoustic noise, vibrations, and de-magnetization risk of the PM (Chan. Proc IEEE 95:704–718, 2007; Report, Implementing Agreement for Co-operation on Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technologies and Programmed. International Energy Agency, 2016). These shortcomings pose important restrictions for critical applications. Initially, to run PMSM, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) is implemented. But this technique generates current harmonics and high torque ripples, which ultimately leads to Acoustic Noise and Vibration (ANV) in PMSM drive. Hence, for analysis purpose, a framework based on lumped model along with effective mass and mass participation factor technique for prediction of torsional vibration in case of SPWM technique is elaborated to show detailed methodology for vibration response caused by high torque ripples. This framework is generalized in a way that can be easily extended to any mechanical power transmission system having shaft-coupler or geared system especially for EV and HEV application. Also, vibration prediction modelling is integrated with optimum number of modes or degree of freedom selection technique, which help to enhance the accuracy of model along with computationally efficient, which is the novelty of present work, which usually researchers took earlier randomly based on their setup and mass distribution without any specific technical justification. The vibration analysis reveals high torsional twisting and untwisting of shaft in case of SPWM, because of high source torque ripple. Henceforth, a Random Pulse Width Modulation (RPWM) technique for reduction of ANV is discussed in this chapter. The proposed RPWM method brings a significant reduction in torque ripples which directly influence ANV in the motor, thereby enhancing the performance of the complete drive system under operation. The relationships between the stator current harmonics feed by drive and non-sinusoidal magnetic field flux distribution, with torque ripples is developed and detailed analysis is discussed in this chapter. An extensive simulation and experimental work are carried out on a 1.07- kW, 4-poles, 36-slots, 3-phase PMSM drive for validation of proposed control strategy. In the end, experimental validation part is presented for all analytical modelling and simulation results presented in this chapter.

With the ever-increasing penetration of renewable energy sources, solar and wind are emerging as eco-friendly generating resources in modern-day power systems. Due to their highly unpredictable nature, the energy storage system is frequently being used in coordination with these sources. This chapter focuses on the overview of the integration of solar, wind, and energy storage system in the present-day power system along with the challenges and control strategies. Photovoltaic systems are used to extract the maximum amount of energy from the available solar intensity. The most commonly used configurations are grid-connected solar PV and stand-alone PV with an energy storage device. Similarly, wind energy has been there for thousands of years for sailing ships, water pumping applications, and so on. Based on the geographical locations, the potential of wind can be utilized to generate energy. Among the available wind generators, doubly-fed induction generator and permanent magnet synchronous generator become popular because of their features of working at variable speed in both super-synchronous and sub-synchronous regimes while extracting maximum power from wind. With the advent of new technologies, modern-day energy storage systems are cost-effective and more efficient. An energy storage system, when integrated with a renewable energy source, plays a vital role as it absorbs energy during periods of high generation and acts as a source during periods of high demand. The storage device thus can be used to reduce the fluctuations in power generated by the renewable sources that are being exchanged with the grid. To improve the resiliency of the modern-day grid, it can also be used as an emergency backup to satisfy the critical loads in the presence of any disturbance. An array of energy storage options is available in the market such as super-capacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage, compressed air, pumped hydro storage, flywheels, and rechargeable batteries. This chapter covers the basics of solar, wind, and energy storage device, especially superconducting magnetic energy storage and battery energy storage system, with schematic illustrations such as electrical equivalent circuits, block diagrams, and control strategies. Apart from this, a novel approach for hybrid integration of solar PV, wind energy, and energy storage devices is proposed here. Specifically, the several possible configurations incorporating solar PV, a doubly-fed induction generator, a permanent magnet synchronous generator, a SMES, and a battery energy storage system are presented and compared based on cost, reliability, stability, and environmental impact. This chapter aims to induce knowledge of new-age power generating options and their integration with the utility grid, increase the share of clean and green energy and encourage contribution towards sustainable development.

Increasingly, there is growth in electric cars globally, and it will keep rising owing to increasing knowledge and interest on the part of people, all while considering the significant environmental and financial effects. Installation in the distribution system of rapid electric vehicle charging stations that meet the increasing charging demand for electric vehicles. Although fast-charging stations are placed in the distribution system, the implementation of these stations leads to adverse effects such as higher power loss and a more inferior voltage profile. To minimize these adverse effects, one must strategically locate charging stations and allocate dispersed generation appropriately across the distribution system. In the article, the negative impacts of charging stations on radial distribution systems and the positive impacts of distributed generation on unbalanced systems to balance single and multiple distributed generation to reduce active and reactive power loss and enhance voltage stability were evaluated for IEEE-25 unbalanced radial distribution systems. The distribution system with sufficient active and reactive power injection has the distributed generation with unity, fixed, and optimum power factor assigned to enhance it. Various optimization strategies were proposed for EVCS allocation, but a novel physics-based meta-heuristic algorithm, Transient search optimization (TSO), which had just been created, was used for multi-objective functions. Based on the modeling findings, the voltage profile improved, and power loss was reduced in every scenario. The convergence features have emerged regarding the new algorithm recently created to coordinate all scenarios with the findings of the outcomes.

Reducing pollution in the environment is the most important topic of the present times. Pollution mainly arises from the burning of fossil fuel which emits CO2 and other harmful gases in the environment. The transportation sector is introducing technologically advanced Electric Vehicles (EVs) which are eco-friendly. EV integration to the grid is the attraction of many researchers and engineers around the world due to the rapidly growing numbers of EVs in the global market. The use of EVs in the grid will play an important role in future smart grid technology. But EVs charging puts significant load demand on the grid as well as uneven and uncoordinated charging creates disturbance in the grid. In order to reduce the burden on the grid, the EVs can be charged by Renewable Energy Resources (RESs). Solar is the most widely available renewable energy source. Solar charging stations can be installed at homes, offices, parking lots, public areas and isolated areas. The proposed system in this chapter is designed in the MATLAB Simulink environment in which Electric Vehicle (EV) is charged in a standalone solar power charging station and this EV is integrated into the grid when the solar power is unavailable. The use of a DC–DC bidirectional converter with appropriate controlling technique enables the transfer of power from EV to the grid whenever there is demand. The benefits and limitations of integrating EV in the power systems have been discussed in this chapter.

The current technological advances of the existing power system offer advantages in almost all aspects of power generation, transmission and distribution at lower cost with an improved voltage profile with minimal power loss to make it a smart power system. Practically, the need for electricity is growing expeditiously all across the world which results in poor voltage profile and an increase in line losses. To reduce the line losses as well as to improve the voltage profile, instead of longer transmission, renewable-based distributed generation (RBDG) can be added locally to the distribution side. Continuous addition of irregular reactive load requires fast-acting variable reactive power compensator like distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM) device to maintain the voltage profile. Consequently, RBDG and D-STATCOM devices are integrated into the distribution system (DS) to fulfill the active and reactive power demand, respectively. Deciding on the distributed generation (DG) and D-STATCOM’s position and size is one of the important analyses to be done by the distribution network operator (DNO). In addition to the allocation of devices, harmonic pollution and voltage instability due to nonlinear load are considered to be serious problems in power systems. In the presented chapter, the gravitational search algorithm (GSA) is applied to obtain the accurate feasible position of DG and D-STATCOM by DNO for smart distribution system (SDS). The combined effect of GSA and harmonic load flow is carried out to achieve minimization of total power losses, voltage total harmonic distortion (THDV) and maximization of the annual energy loss reduction (AELR).

The exact location and design parameter investigation of Renewable Energy Resources (RER) prior to its actual installation is an important step in network planning. Many RER allocation methods are available in the literature but rarely define any unsuitability of location for RER installation that may reduce system performance. For closing the gap of those published methods this chapter outlines two auxiliary services of the proposed method for the installation of renewable energy resources in Transmission and Distribution Systems. These services highlights the most important fields of energy systems, which will be carefully analyzed to make the use of RER more profitable. The first service states the enhanced load capacity which can be achieved after appropriate installation of RER as per the proposed method. While the other one reveals the number of buses removed from the competition to be the ideal location for RER insertion. A thorough study of these often underestimated effects of RER or Distributed Generation installation can help to improve the systems ability of load expansion without network congestion. It also investigates the areas where students will be guided to remove the buses for DG inclusion, which can be described as ‘Inapt Locations’. This will provide a tool to reduce researchers’ efforts to find a suitable location on large networks by reducing the size of the candidates locations.

The electrical power is transmitted through a high-voltage transmission system to low-voltage consumers on the distribution side. Because of the high R/X ratio, high current, and low voltage in distribution systems, active power loss (TPL) is much higher as compared to transmission systems. The economic incentive for distribution power utilities is to reduce losses in their networks. This inducement is generally the cost differential between actual and standard losses. As a result, when actual losses exceed standard losses, the utilities are economically penalized, while when the reverse happens, they are getting benefitted. As a result, the loss minimization problem in distribution systems is an excellent research subject for academics. All the methods for the loss minimization are different from each other by the means of formulation of the problem, tools used to minimize the losses, constraints taken, solution methods, and results are obtained. In most of the cases, the distribution system is interconnected and due to increment in load demand and limitations of loading capacity of distribution lines, the idea of distribution side generation came to maintain the system parameters like voltage profile, power loss, cost of operation, etc. To minimize losses, several methods are available like distributed generation (DG) using renewable energy sources and combined heat and power systems, capacitor allocation, reconfiguration of the network, and D-FACTS devices like dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM), unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) allocation, etc. In this chapter, 33 and 69 bus mesh distribution system analysis is proposed with implementation of multiple wind turbines (WT) and multiple D-STATCOM. Advantages of WT are cost-effective generation, clean fuel source, sustainability, and less land requirement. Here, the Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm is used for finding optimal size and location of WG and D-STATCOM. ABC is an optimization technique that offers population-based search procedure in which artificial bees change individual food locations over time, with the aim of the bees being to locate the places of food supply with the most nectar and recognize it as the one with the greatest nectar. Here direct approach-based load flow method is used to find load flow parameters like bus voltage, branch currents, and power loss. The outcome verifies effective improvement in the system voltage profile, reduction in distribution feeder line loss, and increment in cost savings.

A magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation system is an electrical power generating system which generates the electricity utilizing the MHD principle. MHD power generation technique generates the electric power directly from a moving stream of ionized fluid flowing through a magnetic field. Therefore, the MHD power generation systems are found as the non-conventional electric power generation modality which is considered as the green energy harvesting procedures. The MHD generators utilizes the electromagnetic interaction of an ionized fluid flow and a magnetic field. The ionized fluids in MHD generators work as the moving electrical conductor and hence the electromotive force (e.m.f.) could be generated across the ionized conductor due to the Faraday’s electromagnetic principle. An MHD system, therefore, can act as a fluid dynamo or MHD power converter. In MHD, as the flow (motion) of the conducting fluid (conductor) under a magnetic field causes an induced voltage across the fluid, the e.m.f. would be found at the perpendicular direction to both the magnetic field and the fluid flow according to Fleming's right-hand rule. The concept of MHD power generation technique was first introduced by Michael Faraday in 1832 during his lecture at the Royal Society, UK. Since then, the MHD systems have been developed and studied by several research groups. Different types of MHD generator geometries have been proposed with different channel geometries, different electrode configurations, different magnetic coil structures, and different working fluids or plasmas. Though a typical coal-fired MHD generator converts about 20% of the thermal input power to the output electricity but, using the combined MHD/steam cycle systems, an energy conversion efficiency up to 60% of the coal’s energy can be converted into the electrical energy. In recent time, the green energy harvesting processes are found extremely important to reduce the pollution and to save the fossil fuel in the world for its sustainable development. In this direction, the MHD power generation technique could be utilized for green energy generation without any environmental pollution. In this chapter, The MHD technology has been discussed in detail followed by a discussion on its components, system design issues, and crucial design aspects. A detail review on the historical developments and the associated research works conducted on the MHD power generation process has been presented highlighting the major developments. Along with the limitations and challenges of the MHD power generation method, the present scenario and the future trends are also discussed.

NASA is exploring a host of exciting planetary science exploration ideas for the next decade. The energy storage systems are required for the outer planet, inner planet, Mars, and small body missions. In space missions on energy storage systems place various essential performance conditions. It must be made to specifications and reviewed to maintain trust and to fulfill a wide variety of needs. The energy storage systems used in planetary science missions include main batteries (Non-rechargeable), secondary batteries (rechargeable), and condensers. Fuel cells have been used in human space missions but not in planetary science missions. Therefore, due to this limitation of the fuel cell, it is necessary to develop strong rechargeable batteries to increase the life of the launch vehicle. This chapter offers an overview of energy storage systems that are widely used in the launch vehicle. Storage technologies differ in terms of cost, cycle life, energy density, performance, power output, and discharge time. The benefits and drawbacks of various commercially developed battery chemistries are investigated. The chapter concludes with a discussion on lithium-ion battery recovery and reuse best practices. Advanced technologies are described in this study as those that have not yet been used in space missions and are still in progress. Main batteries, rechargeable batteries, fuel cells, capacitors, and flywheels are among the advanced technologies discussed in this chapter.

In India, the growing population increases energy demand and requires more attention to fulfill current energy needs. Renewable energy sources (RES) appear to cope with current energy demand. Coal is majorly utilized for energy generation whereas renewable energy still requires some effort to reach a significant contribution level. A very high number of Indian rural villages still need electrification. Sometimes, power transfer to these villages is not viable because of cost, large distance, and high power losses by a centralized grid. To solve the problem of rural electrification, microgrids (MG) are a potential clean energy solution isolated or in conjunction with the utility grid at present. This study explores various prospects of MG in rural electrification, policies and their initiation, government, planning to improve the economy linked with current challenges, and some recommendations based on the study. Besides, the condition of MG markets with existing situations faces new challenges with opportunities also discussed. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the power demand for global needs around two-thirds will be fulfilled by RES. Today, RES contributes around 25% and is expected to contribute 50% by 2040. IEA forecast MG with a standalone system would fulfill 60% of global electricity demand and influence the market positively by an estimated period of 2019–2025. The Paris Agreement formed upon the UN Framework Convention based on climate change in 2015 aimed to lessen the effects of increasing worldwide temperatures from more than 2 °C above, and it is consented to by 144 countries. According to Climatescope, India ranks second in the list of over 100 countries based on readiness for RE investment. After China and the United States, India is in the third position in the largest solar power. Bloomberg New Energy Finance has estimated the opportunities in a rooftop solar alone investment of around $23 billion in India. India has the world's largest auction for RE and has in recent times embarked on crucial incentives for RE, together with MG growth. In this chapter, various prospects, economics, challenges, market conditions, and government policies for MG related to rural electrification have been discussed. The main challenges of MGs like intermittent power, storage system cost, energy cost, power quality, tariff plans, and subsidy have been discussed. The policies by central and state levels should consider all challenges for rural electrification market planning and its implementation with the consideration of political, environmental, technical, and economic factors. It is required to consider the MG costs, cost recovery models and regulatory bottlenecks are weighing down before implementing any MG project. Finally, RES and its contribution in today's scenario is also reviewed with potential and its requirement for the future.

The population of India is growing day by day. This is resulting in more pollution facing the problem of shorter non-rechargeable resources leftover for the succeeding generations. Naturally, it is certainly concluded that India’s energy demand will increase in near future. Renewable energy is very useful in playing a significant role for providing pollution-free energy. This will certainly contribute to climate change. There is a target of generating 100 GW of solar energy by 2022. This goal is very pioneering for India under the agreement of Climate Change in Paris. Progress of the Indian solar energy division depends on the mixture of law framework, financial structure, and local production sector and eco-friendly sound technology. Although there is enhancing potential of sun energy in India, today also there are shortcomings in its administration. In this chapter, the authors focus on the present status, challenges, and upcoming prospects of sun power progress in India. It further summarizes the way ahead with recommendations to overcome some of the shortcomings.