Introduction
Assessing Impacts to Support Adaptation
Establishing Baseline Information
Monitoring to Inform Management Decisions
Incorporating Uncertainty into Impact Assessments
Management Strategies for Resilience to Climate Change
Adaptation Approaches
Reduce Anthropogenic Stresses
Adaptation approach: reduce anthropogenic stresses |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Reduce the impact of current anthropogenic stressors such as fragmentation (e.g., by creating larger management units and migration corridors) and uncharacteristically severe wildfires and insect outbreaks (e.g., by reducing stand densities and abating fuels) |
✓ Identify and take early proactive action against non-native invasive species (e.g., by using early detection and rapid response approaches) |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Remove structures that harden the coastlines, impede natural regeneration of sediments, and prevent natural inland migration of sand and vegetation after disturbances |
✓ Reduce or eliminate water pollution by working with watershed coalitions to reduce non-point sources and with local, state and federal agencies to reduce atmospheric deposition |
✓ Manage Park Service and visitor use practices to prevent people from inadvertently contributing to climate change |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Reduce human water withdrawals to restore natural hydrologic regimes |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Purchase or lease water rights to enhance flow management options |
✓ Manage water storage and withdrawals to smooth the supply of available water throughout the year |
✓ Develop more effective stormwater infrastructure to reduce future occurrences of severe erosion |
✓ Consider shifting access points or moving existing trails for wildlife or river enthusiasts |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ Conduct integrated management of nutrient sources and wetland treatment of nutrients to limit hypoxia and eutrophication |
✓ Manage water resources to ensure sustainable use in the face of changing recharge rates and saltwater infiltration |
✓ Prohibit bulkheads and other engineered structures on estuarine shores to preserve or delay the loss of important shallow-water habitats by permitting their inland migration as sea levels rise |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Manage human stressors such as overfishing and excessive inputs of nutrients, sediments, and pollutants within marine protected areas |
✓ Improve water quality by raising awareness of adverse effects of land-based activities on marine environments, implementing integrated coastal and watershed management, and developing options for advanced wastewater treatment |
Protect Key Ecosystem Features
Adaptation approach: protect key ecosystem features |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Facilitate natural (evolutionary) adaptation through management practices (e.g., prescribed fire and other silvicultural treatments) that shorten regeneration times and promote interspecific competition |
✓ Promote connected landscapes to facilitate species movements and gene flow, sustain key ecosystem processes (e.g., pollination and dispersal), and protect critical habitats for threatened and endangered species |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Remove barriers to upstream migration in rivers and streams |
✓ Reduce fragmentation and maintain or restore species migration corridors to facilitate natural flow of genes, species and populations |
✓ Use wildland fire, mechanical thinning, or prescribed burns where it is documented to reduce risk of anomalously severe fires |
✓ Minimize alteration of natural disturbance regimes, for example through protection of natural flow regimes in rivers or removal of infrastructure that prohibits the allowance of wildland fire |
✓ Aggressively prevent establishment of invasive non-native species or diseases where they are documented to threaten native species or current ecosystem function |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Manage risk of catastrophic fires through prescribed burns |
✓ Reduce or eliminate stressors on conservation target species |
✓ Improve the matrix surrounding the refuge by partnering with adjacent owners to improve/build new habitats |
✓ Install levees and other engineering works to alter water flows to benefit refuge species |
✓ Remove dispersal barriers and establish dispersal bridges for species |
✓ Use conservation easements around the refuge to allow species dispersal and maintain ecosystem function |
✓ Facilitate migration through the establishment and maintenance of wildlife corridors |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Maintain the natural flow regime through managing dam flow releases upstream of the wild and scenic river (through option agreements with willing partners) to protect flora and fauna in drier downstream river reaches, or to prevent losses from extreme flooding |
✓ Use drought-tolerant plant varieties to help protect riparian buffers |
✓ Create wetlands or off-channel storage basins to reduce erosion during high flow periods |
✓ Actively remove invasive species that threaten key native species |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ Help protect tidal marshes from erosion with oyster breakwaters and rock sills and thus preserve their water filtration and fisheries enhancement functions |
✓ Preserve and restore the structural complexity and biodiversity of vegetation in tidal marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangroves |
✓ Adapt protections of important biogeochemical zones and critical habitats as the locations of these areas change with climate |
✓ Connect landscapes with corridors to enable migrations to sustain wildlife biodiversity across the landscape |
✓ Develop practical approaches to apply the principle of rolling easements to prevent engineered barriers from blocking landward retreat of coastal marshes and other shoreline habitats as sea level rises |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Identify ecological connections among ecosystems and use them to inform the design of MPAs and management decisions such as protecting resistant areas to ensure sources of recruitment for recovery of populations in damaged areas |
✓ Manage functional species groups necessary to maintaining the health of reefs and other ecosystems |
✓ Design marine protected areas with dynamic boundaries and buffers to protect breeding and foraging habits of highly migratory and pelagic species |
✓ Monitor ecosystems and have rapid-response strategies prepared to assess ecological effects of extreme events as they occur |
✓ Identify and protect ecologically significant (“critical”) areas such as nursery grounds, spawning grounds, and areas of high species diversity |
Maintain Representation
Adaptation approach: represent |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Modify genetic diversity guidelines to increase the range of species, maintain high effective population sizes, and favor genotypes known for broad tolerance ranges |
✓ Where ecosystems will very likely become more water limited, manage for drought- and heat-tolerant species and populations, and where climate trends are less certain, manage for a variety of species and genotypes with a range of tolerances to low soil moisture and higher temperatures |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Allow the establishment of species that are non-native locally, but which maintain native biodiversity or enhance ecosystem function in the overall region |
✓ Actively plant or introduce desired species after disturbances or in anticipation of the loss of some species |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Strategically expand the boundaries of refuges to increase ecological, genetic, geographical, behavioral and morphological variation in species |
✓ Facilitate the growth of plant species more adapted to future climate conditions |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Increase genetic diversity through plantings or by stocking fish |
✓ Increase physical habitat heterogeneity in channels to support diverse biotic assemblages |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ Maintain high genetic diversity through strategies such as the establishment of reserves specifically for this purpose |
✓ Maintain landscape complexity of salt marsh landscapes, especially preserving marsh edge environments |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Maximize habitat heterogeneity within marine protected areas and consider protecting larger areas to preserve biodiversity, biological connections among habitats, and ecological functions |
✓ Include entire ecological units (e.g., coral reefs with their associated mangroves and seagrasses) in marine protected area design to maintain ecosystem function and resilience |
✓ Ensure that the full breadth of habitat types is protected (e.g., fringing reef, fore reef, back reef, patch reef) |
Replicate
Adaptation approach: replicate |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Spread risks by increasing ecosystem redundancy and buffers in both natural environments and plantations |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Practice bet-hedging by replicating populations and gene pools of desired species |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Provide redundant refuge types to reduce risk to trust species |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Establish special protection for multiple headwater reaches that support keystone processes or sensitive species |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ When restoring oyster reefs, replicate reefs along a depth gradient to allow fish and crustaceans to survive when depth-dependant environmental degradation occurs |
✓ Support migrating shorebirds by ensuring protection of replicated estuaries along the flyway |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Replicate habitat types in multiple areas to spread risks associated with climate change |
Restore
Adaptation approach: restore |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Use the paleological record and historical ecological studies to revise and update restoration goals so that selected species will be tolerant of anticipated climate |
✓ Where appropriate after large-scale disturbances, reset succession and manage for asynchrony at the landscape scale by promoting diverse age classes and species mixes, a variety of successional stages, and spatially complex and heterogeneous vegetation structure |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Restore vegetation where it confers biophysical protection to increase resilience, including riparian areas that shade streams and coastal wetland vegetation that buffers shorelines |
✓ Minimize soil loss after fire or vegetation dieback using native vegetation and debris |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Restore and increase habitat availability and reduce stressors in order to capture the full geographical, geophysical, and ecological ranges of species on as many refuges as possible |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Conduct river restoration projects to stabilize eroding banks, repair in-stream habitat, or promote fish passages from areas with high temperatures and less precipitation |
✓ Restore the natural capacity of rivers to buffer climate-change impacts (e.g., through land acquisition around rivers, levee setbacks to free the floodplain of infrastructure, riparian buffer repairs) |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ Restore important native species and remove invasive non-natives to improve marsh characteristics that promote propagation and production of fish and wildlife |
✓ Direct estuarine habitat restoration projects to places where the restored ecosystem has room to retreat as sea level rises |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Following extreme events, consider whether actions should be taken to enhance natural recovery processes through active restoration |
✓ Consider mangrove restoration for potential benefits including shoreline protection, expansion of nursery habitat, and release of tannins and other dissolved organic compounds that may reduce photo-oxidative stress in corals |
Identify Refugia and Relocate Organisms
Adaptation approach: identify refugia |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Use the paleological record and historical ecological studies to identify environments buffered against climate change, which would be good candidates for long-term conservation |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Create or protect refugia for valued aquatic species at risk to the effects of early snowmelt on river flow |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Reforest riparian boundaries with native species to create shaded thermal refugia for fish species in rivers and streams |
✓ Identify climate change refugia and acquire necessary land |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Plant riparian vegetation to provide fish and other organisms with refugia |
✓ Acquire additional river reaches for the wild and scenic river where they contain naturally occurring refugia from climate change stressors |
✓ Create side-channels and adjacent wetlands to provide refugia for species during droughts and floods |
National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008) |
✓ Restore oyster reefs along a depth gradient to provide shallow water refugia for mobile species such as fish and crustaceans to retreat to in response to climate-induced deep water hypoxia/anoxia |
Marine Protected Areas (Keller and others 2008) |
✓ Identify and protect areas observed to be resistant to climate change effects or to recover quickly from climate-induced disturbances |
✓ Establish dynamic marine protected areas defined by large-scale oceanographic features such as oceanic fronts where changes in types and abundances of organisms often occur |
Adaptation approach: relocate |
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National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
✓ Establish or strengthen long-term seed banks to create the option of re-establishing extirpated populations in new/more appropriate locations |
National Parks (Baron and others 2008) |
✓ Assist in species migrations |
National Wildlife Refuges (Scott and others 2008) |
✓ Facilitate long-distance transport of threatened endemic species |
✓ Facilitate interim propagation and sheltering or feeding of mistimed migrants, holding them until suitable habitat becomes available |
Wild & Scenic Rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
✓ Establish programs to move isolated populations of species of interest that become stranded when water levels drop |
Adaptive Management
Barriers and Opportunities for Implementation
Legislation and Regulations
Legislation and regulation | ||
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Perceived barrier | Opportunity | Examples |
Legislation and agency policies may be highly static, inhibit dynamic planning, impede flexible adaptive responses and force a fine-filter approach to management | Re-evaluate capabilities of, or authorities under, existing legislation to determine how climate change can be addressed within the legislative boundaries | • Use state wildlife action plans to manage lands adjacent to national wildlife refuges to enable climate-induced species emigration (Scott and others 2008) |
• Incorporate climate change impacts into priority setting for designation of new wild and scenic rivers (Palmer and others 2008) |
Management Policies and Procedures
Management policies and procedures | ||
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Perceived barrier | Opportunity | Examples |
Seasonal management activities may be affected by changes in timing and duration of seasons | Review timing of management activities and take advantage of seasonal changes that provide more opportunities for adaptation | • Take advantage of shorter winter seasons (longer prescribed fire season) to do fuel treatments on more national forest acres (Julius and others 2008) |
Agency policies do not recognize climatic change as a significant problem or stressor | Take advantage of flexibility in planning guidelines and processes to incorporate adaptation to climate change | • Where guidelines are flexible for meeting strategic planning goals (e.g., maintain biodiversity), re-prioritize management actions to address effect of climate change on achievement of goals (Julius and others 2008) |
Political boundaries do not necessarily align with ecological processes; some resources cross boundaries; checkerboard ownership pattern with lands alternating between public and private ownership at odds with landscape-scale management (see Joyce and others 2008) | Identify management authorities with similar goals and adjacent lands; share information, create coalitions and partnerships that extend beyond political boundaries to coordinate management; acquire property for system expansion | • Implement active management at broader landscape scales through existing multi-agency management processes such as (1) the Herger-Feinstein Quincy Library Group Pilot and the FPA Adaptive Management project on Tahoe National Forest (Julius and others 2008), (2) the Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee, and the Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Program with relationships across jurisdictional boundaries (Baron and others 2008), (3) The Delaware River, managed cooperatively as a partnership river (Julius and others 2008) |
• Coordinate dam management at the landscape level for species that cross political boundaries using dam operations prospectively as thermal controls under future climate changes (Palmer and others 2008) |
Human and Financial Capital
Human and financial capital | ||
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Perceived barrier | Opportunity | Examples |
Lack of incentive to take risks, develop creative projects; reward system focuses on achieving narrowly prescribed targets; funds allocated encourage routine, easily accomplished activities | Shift from a culture of punishing failure to one that values creative thinking and supports incremental learning and gradual achievement of management goals | • Build into performance expectations of a gradient between success and failure (Baron and others 2008) |
• Set up a systematic method for (1) learning from mistakes and successes, and (2) eliciting the experience and empirical data of front line managers, resource management personnel, and scientific staff (Baron and others 2008) | ||
Little to no climate expertise within management units at regional and local levels; disconnect between science and management that impedes access to information | Use newly created positions or staff openings as opportunities to add climate change expertise; train resource managers and other personnel in climate change science | • Develop expertise through incorporation into existing Forest Service training programs like the silvicultural certification program, regional integrated resource training workshops, and regional training sessions for resource staffs (Joyce and others 2008) |
• Develop managers’ guides, climate primers, management toolkits, a Web clearinghouse, and video presentations (Joyce and others 2008) | ||
National and regional budget policies constrain the altering or supplementing of current management practices to enable adaptation to climate change; general decline in staff resources and capacity | Look for creative ways to augment the workforce and stretch budgets to institute adaptation practices (e.g., individuals or parties with mutual interests in learning about or addressing climate change that may be engaged at no additional cost) | • Augment budget and workforce through volunteers from the public or other sources such as institutions with compatible educational requirements, neighborhood groups, environmental associations, etc., such as the Reef Check Program that help collect coral reef monitoring data (Keller and others 2008) |
• Identify organizations or citizens that benefit from adaptation to share implementation costs in order to avoid more costly impacts/damages (Julius and others 2008) |
Information and Science
Information and science | ||
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Perceived barrier | Opportunity | Examples |
Often no inventory or baseline information exists, and nothing is in place to detect climate change impacts | Identify existing monitoring programs for management; develop a suite of climate change indicators and incorporate them into existing programs | • Use programs such as the National Park Service vital signs for the Inventory and Monitoring Program, Global Fiducial Program, Long Term Ecological Research networks, and National Ecological Observatory Network to monitor climate change impacts and effectiveness of adaptation options (Baron and others 2008) |
Historic conditions may no longer sufficiently inform future planning (e.g., “100-year” flood events may occur more often) | Evaluate policies that use historic conditions and determine how to better reflect accurate baselines in the face of climate change; modify design assumptions to account for changing climate conditions | • Change emphasis from maintenance of “minimum flows” to the more sophisticated and scientifically based “natural flow paradigm,” as is happening in some places (Palmer and others 2008) |
Lack of decision support tools, uncertainty in climate change science, and gaps in scientific data limits assessments of risks and efficacies | Identify and use all available tools/mechanisms currently in place to deal with existing problems to apply to climate-change related impacts | • Hedge bets and optimize practices in situations where system dynamics and responses are fairly certain (Baron and others 2008) |
• Use adaptive management in situations with greater uncertainty (Baron and others 2008) | ||
Occurrence of extreme climate events outside historical experience | Use disturbed landscapes as templates for “management experiments” that provide data to improve adaptive management | • After fire, reforest with genotypes that are better adjusted to the new or unfolding regional climate with nursery stock tolerant to low soil moisture and high temperature, or with a variety of genotypes (Joyce and others 2008) |
Stakeholders have insufficient information to properly evaluate adaptation actions, and thus may oppose/prevent implementation of adaptation (e.g., salvaging harvests after disturbance). Appeals and litigation from external public results in no action | Inform public and promote consensus-building on tough decisions; invite input from a broad range of sources to generate buy-in across stakeholder interests | • Conduct public outreach activities with information on climate impacts and adaptation options—including demonstration projects with concrete results—through workshops, scoping meetings, face-to-face dialog, and informal disposition processes to increase buy in for management actions (Julius and others 2008) |
• Use state and local stakeholders to develop management plans to gain support and participation in implementation and oversight of planning activities, as do the National Estuaries (Peterson and others 2008), the Coastal Habitat Protection Plans for fisheries management (Peterson and others 2008), and some National Forests (Joyce and others 2008) |
Advancing the Nation’s Capability to Adapt
Manage at Appropriate Scales
Expand Interagency Collaboration, Integration, and Lesson-Sharing
Re-Evaluate Priorities and Consider Triage
Manage for Change
Adaptation options for managing for change |
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✓ Assist transitions, population adjustments, and range shifts through manipulation of species mixes, altered genotype selections, modified age structures, and relocations |
✓ Rather than focusing only on historic distributions, spread species over a range of environments according to modeled future conditions |
✓ Proactively manage early successional stages that follow widespread climate-related mortality by promoting diverse age classes, species mixes, genetic diversity, etc., at landscape scales |
✓ Identify areas that supported species in the past under similar conditions to those projected for the future and consider these sites for establishment of “neo-native” plantations or restoration sites |
✓ Favor the natural regeneration of species better adapted to projected future conditions |
✓ Realign management targets to recognize significantly disrupted conditions, rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a “reference” condition that is no longer realistic given climate change |
✓ Manage the public’s expectations as to what ecological states will be possible (or impossible) given the discrepancy between historical climate conditions and current/future climate conditions |
✓ Develop guidelines for the scenarios under which restoration projects or rebuilding of human structures should occur after climate disturbances |