Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Since the first edition of the Handbook, important new research findings on climate change have been gathered. The handbook was extended to also cover, apart from climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation as one can witness increasing initiatives to cope with the phenomenon. Instrumental recording shows a temperature increase of 0.5 °C Le Houérou (J Arid Environ 34:133–185, 1996) with rather different regional patterns and trends (Folland CK, Karl TR, Nicholls N, Nyenzi BS, Parker DE, Vinnikov KYA (1992) Observed climate variability and change. In: Houghton JT, Callander BA, Varney SDK (eds) Climate change, the supplementary report to the IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 135–170). Over the last several million years, there have been warmer and colder periods on Earth, and the climate fluctuates for a variety of natural reasons as data from tree rings, pollen, and ice core samples have shown. However, human activities on Earth have reached an extent that they impact the globe in potentially catastrophic ways. This chapter is an introduction to climate change.

The impacts of climate change that are not mitigated, or appropriately adapted or coped with, are referred to as “loss and damage.” The global community has recently recognized that addressing and financing the “residual” loss and damage from climate change requires a different approach as such costs cannot or have not been appropriately mitigated or adapted to. Although international pressures to weigh a country’s contribution to climate change financing against their contribution to climate change has been proposed, no such legally binding climate change deals have been fashioned. Most parties have only agreed to nonbinding actions to either reduce emissions or finance loss and damage in low-income, vulnerable countries. This is because the concept of loss and damage and the approaches to address the concept have been widely contested and debated. Additionally, the lack of a global consensus on an appropriate mechanism to attribute gradual and extreme natural calamities to climate change has further intensified the debate. Given this background, this chapter seeks to synthesize the key issues surrounding this debate. The objectives of this chapter are to review the definitions of loss and damage, examine the evolution of its significance in the international climate politics, present a comparative analysis of the approaches to address climate change-induced loss and damage, and outline empirical evidence of loss and damage in geographically and economically vulnerable nations.

Earth’s climate has been changing since the conceivable beginning of the geological history of Earth. This is reflected by paleoclimate occurrences of ice ages, followed by consequent warmer interglacial episodes. The most recent ice age has been tentatively traced back to some three million years ago. However, the onslaught of industrial revolution has greatly affected the framework of climate change. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are now 40 % higher than before the industrial revolution. This, in turn, has given rise to increase in temperature during the past couple of centuries. Glaciers have recently started melting, and the global average sea level has risen by more than 25 cm. Study of core records from Antarctica and Greenland disclose that paleoclimate ice cores dating back to 800,000 years revealed that the current concentrations of greenhouse gases exceeded the concentration of these gases, preserved in those ice cores. Currently, global warming has emerged as the most serious environmental threat to mankind, and unless a drastic cut is made in the emission of greenhouse gases, the world would be heading toward an unretractable disaster. Consequently, this requires a global approach for development to combat the situation. To start with, there has to be awareness and preparedness, followed by capacity building through community education and training, as well as enforcement of regulations. This approach supports strategy of adaptation to vulnerability reduction and readiness to policy-supporting development, as the future course of action.

Life cycle assessments of greenhouse gas emissions have been developed for analyzing products “from cradle to grave”: from resource extraction to waste disposal. Life cycle assessment methodology has also been applied to economies, trade between countries, aspects of production, and waste management, including CO₂ capture and sequestration. Life cycle assessments of greenhouse gas emissions are often part of wider environmental assessments, which also cover other environmental impacts. Such wider-ranging assessments allow for considering “trade-offs” between (reduction of) greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts and co-benefits of reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Databases exist which contain estimates of current greenhouse gas emissions linked to fossil fuel use and to many current agricultural and industrial activities. However, these databases do allow for substantial uncertainties in emission estimates. Assessments of greenhouse gas emissions linked to new processes and products are subject to even greater data-linked uncertainty. Variability in outcomes of life cycle assessments of greenhouse gas emissions may furthermore originate in different choices regarding functional units, system boundaries, time horizons, and the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions to outputs in multi-output processes.Life cycle assessments may be useful in the identification of life cycle stages that are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and of major reduction options, in the verification of alleged climate benefits, and to establish major differences between competing products. They may also be helpful in the analysis and development of options, policies, and innovations aimed at mitigation of climate change.The main findings from available life cycle assessments of greenhouse gas emissions are summarized, offering guidance in mitigating climate change. Future directions in developing life cycle assessment and its application are indicated. These include better handling of indirect effects, of uncertainty, and of changes in carbon stock of recent biogenic origin and improved comprehensiveness in dealing with climate warming.

This chapter discusses economic aspects of international efforts to curb the global warming threat. The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol expired in 2012, which has until then been the dominant climate agreement although competing – or allegedly complement – international climate protection schemes like the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate also existed. While as of 5 April 2011, the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP)Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP) formally concluded its joint work, tangible preparations for a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol started at the climate conference in Montreal (comprising MOP and COP-11) in 2005. In Montreal, a new working group was established for the discussion of future commitments (after 2012). And at the COP-18 in Doha in 2012, an agreement on a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol for 2013–2020 could be reached.In this chapter, we describe the main features of Kyoto and APP schemes and their failure to establish an efficient global climate protection regime, and we elaborate on the disincentives for countries to commit to efficient climate protection efforts in an international agreement. In doing so we also take into account the growing importance of Adaptation to climate changeadaptation to climate change in the international climate policy arena.The situation in international negotiations on climate change mitigation faced by national governments is depicted in game theoretic settings, and private ancillary benefits of climate policy are identified to raise the likelihood for countries joining an international agreement. Yet, it remains quite disputable to which extent ancillary benefits can be an impetus for more action in international climate policy. Finally, after dedicating a large part of the chapter to agreements, like the Kyoto Protocol, stipulating abatement quantities, alternative schemes are presented which were coined “price ducks” since they influence the effective prices of climate protection. By manipulating prices, e.g., via an international carbon tax, incentives are generated for producing higher climate protection levels. Recently, the so-called matching schemes influencing effective prices of climate protection raised much attention in the scientific literature. Such schemes may attenuate free- or easy-rider incentives in international climate policy and may even induce a globally efficient climate protection level.

This chapter offers a survey of important factors for the consideration of the moral obligations involved in confronting the challenges of climate change. The first step is to identify as carefully as possible what is known about climate change science, predictions, concerns, models, and both mitigation and adaptation efforts. While the present volume is focused primarily on the mitigation side of reactions to climate change, these mitigation efforts ought to be planned in part with reference to what options and actions are available, likely, and desirable for adaptation. Section “Understanding Climate Change,” therefore, provides an overview of the current understanding of climate change with careful definitions of terminology and concepts along with the presentation of the increasingly strong evidence that validates growing concern about climate change and its probable consequences. Section “Uncertainties and Moral Obligations Despite Them” addresses the kinds of uncertainty at issue when it comes to climate science. The fact that there are uncertainties involved in the understanding of climate change will be shown to be consistent with there being moral obligations to address climate change, obligations that include expanding the knowledge of the subject, developing plans for a variety of possible adaptation needs, and studying further the various options for mitigation and their myriad costs. Section “Traditions and New Developments in Environmental Ethics” covers a number of moral considerations for climate change mitigation, opening with an examination of the traditional approaches to environmental ethics and then presenting three pressing areas of concern for mitigation efforts: differential levels of responsibility for action that affects the whole globe, the dangers of causing greater harm than is resolved, and the motivating force of diminishing and increasingly expensive fossil fuels that will necessitate and likely speed up innovation in energy production and consumption that will be required for human beings to survive once fossil fuels are exhausted.

News media portrayals of climate change have strongly influenced personal and global efforts to mitigate it through news production, individual media consumption, and personal engagement. This chapter explores the media framing of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, including the effects of media routines, factors that drive news coverage, the influences of claims-makers, scientists, and other information sources, the role of scientific literacy in interpreting climate change stories, and specific messages that mobilize action or paralysis. It also examines how journalists often explain complex climate science and legitimize sources, how audiences process competing messages about scientific uncertainty, how climate stories compete with other issues for public attention, how large-scale economic and political factors shape news production, and how the media can engage public audiences in climate change issues.

Sustainable development endorses the idea that social, environmental, and economic progress is possible within the limits of earth’s natural resources. Sustainable development acknowledges that everything in the world is connected through space and time; hence, environmental pollution created in one part of the globe disturbs the other part of the globe or decisions made by the present generation will affect the future generations. Sustainable development is the route to world’s sustainable future. Therefore, to achieve true sustainability there is a need to harmoniously balance economic, social, and environmental sustainability factors. Environmental sustainability means that world’s ecological limits are not transgressed. Economic sustainability requires that existing resources are used optimally so that a responsible and beneficial balance can be achieved over the longer term. Social sustainability is the ability of society, or any social system, to continually achieve a good social wellbeing. Yet there are policies and practices in social, political, and economic milieu that constantly promote unsustainability or are fundamentally in tension with the sustainable development notion. For example, sustainability and economic growth are fundamentally incompatible because the contemporary global economic system, which promote economic growth, assumes continuous expansion in consumption of material goods and resources, a phenomenon that conflicts with the environmental notion of a finite planet with limited resources. Similarly, the unfair economic structures in the economic system create great wealth inequalities, which could lead to social unsustainability and social unrest. Likewise, the solutions to world’s political problems if enforced without considering the will and aspirations of the affected local population create social unrest and affect the global peace.This chapter emphasizes on the need for a fair and just economic system to achieve sustainability. It shows that climate change, ecological degradation, population growth, poverty and the resource scarcity, the problems of failing financial markets, and economic recession are all intertwined with the present economic system, which has been responsible for transgressing the balance of nature. The chapter then reviews reforms and alternatives, proposed in literature, to the present economic system to promote sustainability such as steady-state economics; environmental economics, ecological economics; restorative economics; local self-reliance/alternative currency, etc. Existence of interest and discount rates, which are a given necessity of the world economic system, means that the future costs and benefits are less valuable than those in the present – a clear case of intergenerational inequity and injustice. The chapter, using the concepts of systems thinking, make a case against discounting the future and shows that the discounting practice is in conflict with the holistic approach to the environment. The chapter shows that all the reforms or alternatives to contemporary economic system proposed in the literature do not really address the root cause of all the problems, which is the built-in interest-based system, made possible with the paper currency, in the economy that creates great injustices. The chapter argues that solutions of science and technology to ecological problems are limited because of ecological shortsightedness and corporate greed. Finally, in the future directions a broad framework of “fair and just” economic system is laid out which if realized can lead to an ecologically sustainable future for the planet.

Climate change is being exacerbated by the emissions of globe-warming greenhouse gases (GHGs) as a consequence of economic activities associated with energy, industry, transportation, and land use. From an economic viewpoint, the Earth’s climate is a public good, and pollution a negative externality; such change therefore constitutes market failure. Controlling air pollution by utilizing economic mechanisms represents an important change in environmental thinking – literally a paradigm shift away from historical command-and-control engineering systems. Today, this approach is being utilized to mitigate the emissions of GHGs, addressing the pollution externality by putting a price on carbon. The international carbon market, largely developed as a result of the Kyoto Protocol, had a total value of $176 billion in 2011, but it has decreased significantly in recent years. With the addition of China and other national and subnational programs, however, it is expected that it will once again increase, as a larger and larger portion of emitted GHGs come under such regulatory purview. Historically, the largest component of that market has been the European Union’s Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which represents a regional market designed first to assist Europe in achieving compliance with the Protocol’s requirements, and now is a cornerstone of the EU’s policy to combat climate change. It also has links to the Protocol’s project-based mechanisms, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI), which help minimize compliance costs. China’s nascent market – currently seven pilot schemes, but expected to become a national program in 2016 – should ultimately become twice as large as the EU ETS. Other carbon markets created in numerous countries (e.g., the U.S., Japan, South Korea, etc.) as well as a voluntary market are also expected to make significant contributions. This chapter discusses the structure of these emissions trading carbon markets, the theory behind their development, their historical evolution, ongoing governance challenges, and future prospects.

The trading of carbon emission permits is an instrument created recently to tackle the climate change problem. From 2005 onward, in particular, the volume and significance of different carbon emission trading schemes have increased spectacularly; despite the fact that new emission trading schemes are appearing, the value of the market had fallen by the end of the Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period in 2012. One fundamental reason for this was the uncertainty as to whether a new global agreement or protocol would be reached in 2015. The main goal of this chapter is to offer an overview of International Emission Trading under the Kyoto Protocol together with the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), as the schemes at the core of today’s carbon markets, exploring their basic structure, their main links, and their differences, including a carbon price analysis underlining their fundamental weaknesses and strengths.

Since climate change has become an international concern, most of the developed countries have attempted to adopt policies to mitigate global warming and its side effects in the last years. In this chapter, firstly the climate change framework for international action and policy development is analyzed. Likewise, due to the strategic importance of the European Union (EU) leadership in developing and implementing new instruments and policies to mitigate climate change through energy efficiency and renewable energy sources, this work is mainly focused on its energy legislative instruments to face the climate change. The present energy model of the EU, which supports its economic growth and prosperity, is nearly 80 % dependent on fossils fuels and increasingly dependent on energy imported from non-EU member countries, creating economic, social, political, and other risks for the EU. From the 1990s, the key objectives of the EU have been energy security of supply, competitiveness, and environmental protection, making renewable energy sources and energy efficiency the basis for EU’s new energy strategy. Accordingly, the EU has recently adopted new legislative instruments with the aim to become the world leader in the impulse of climate change mitigation through the employment of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency technologies. Therefore, this chapter presents and discusses the main legislative measures adopted recently, as well as their potential incidence on the EU’s objectives to comply with climate change amendments under the Kyoto Protocol.

For over half a century, society has relied on the products of the organic chemical industry to supply the clothes we wear, the food we eat, our health, housing, transportation, security, and other commodities. Approximately 92 % of organic chemical products are derived from oil and gas. In addition, these same resources are generally used to provide the large quantities of process heat and power needed by the industry. In the modern petrochemical industry, oil and gas inputs for both raw material and process energy compose around 50 % of the operating costs.Not only is the chemical industry (including petrochemicals) the industrial sector with the highest emissions worldwide, it is also very vulnerable to variations in fossil fuel prices and, potentially, climate policies. Efficiency has long been a major factor in determining competitiveness in petrochemicals, and the sector has a high success rate in reducing its energy intensity. Yet, while global use of oil for energy grew globally by 12 % between 2002 and 2012, the use of oil for chemical feedstocks grew 21 %. It now represents 9 % of total global oil use and 6 % of total global gas use. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in an industry that is so dependent on fossil fuels presents a significant challenge.This chapter introduces the history of the modern chemical industry and the establishment of its close relationship with the oil industry. This relationship has recently come under strain as new sources of oil and gas are increasingly exploited, and growth in hydrocarbon demand for chemical products outpaces that for energy from these sources. It goes on to describe some of the major chemical processes, their GHG emissions, and their geographical variations. The benefits and challenges of several technological mitigation options are discussed. These are recycling, efficiency gains through cogeneration, CO₂ capture and storage (CCS), and feedstock switching via biorefining.

“Cleantech” is being widely used to replace “Green Technology.” It describes a group of emerging technologies and industries, based on principles of physics, chemistry, biology, and resource efficiency, new paradigms in energy, and water conservation. The scope of this field includes large-scale infrastructure projects as well as innovative technologies. The term Cleantech is also often associated with venture capital (VC) investment. A goal of this chapter is to provide readers with an overview of the scope and trends in venture capital-funded innovation in Cleantech, where and how to seek VC funding, and Cleantech implications on world climate change.This chapter addresses the basics of venture capital and the dynamic field of Cleantech. Subjects covered are as follows: (1) VC investment trend based on the volume of funds invested and the number of projects funded; (2) the scope of Cleantech encompassing renewable energy, energy efficiency, green building, transportation, smart power, smart grid and energy storage, air, water, and waste; (3) Cleantech technology trend detailing 2014 Cleantech top 100 companies – a barometer of the changing face of global Cleantech innovation; (4) Cleantech investment in Silicon Valley assumed a leading role in the global competition to develop renewable energy and other clean, green technologies; and (5) Cleantech investment in emerging nations addressing the status in China and other developing nations.The Concluding Remarkdiscusses multidiscipline for Cleantech and the key to the deployment of Cleantech innovations. The Appendix provides a brief introduction of how and where to find information and seek for VC funding.

Economic development of the poorer nations brings competing influences on public health. On the one hand, the increase in per capita wealth reduces susceptibility to environmental pollutants. On the other hand, industrialization may increase the emissions of those same pollutants. Global climate policy negotiations have recognized this conflict, striving to identify a pathway to decarbonize the global economy while allowing growth in world regions at the bottom of the economic pyramid. This chapter explores the conflict by developing a quantitative methodology for calculating the economic growth’s net impact on public health and the co-benefits of greenhouse gas reductions associated with exposure to particulate matter. The chapter shows that co-benefits of decarbonization are significant; GDP growth in non-Annex I nations carries its own health benefit; the co-benefits are in part reduced through the increase in GDP by between 12 % and 17 %; and failure to include economic growth projections into co-benefit calculations produces greater errors in co-benefitCo-benefits, climate policy estimates as the stringency of climate policies is increased.

This chapter summarizes the recent policy and research development of the aviation emission reduction and its mechanism. First we trace the policy process surrounding UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Post-Kyoto Protocol negotiations, mostly focusing on the activities in the ICAO. Key factors in the policy process are (1) the disparities in the field of international aviation among the nations, such as income level and preferences between environment and growth. Such disparities could be interpreted as the notion of “common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities (CBDR)” in the Kyoto Protocol. The second key factor is (2) uncertainties surrounding the impact of GHG emission on utilities of nations. Then we look into the theoretical developments in the field of international aviation from the economics viewpoint. Main objectives are to illustrate the impact of market-based mechanism (MBM), such as the emission allowance trading, and the inherent difficulties to reach social optimal allocations through the bargaining among nations in the presence of nations’ disparities and uncertainties of GHG emission’s impact on nations’ utilities.

By the term “carbon liability,” we mean a calculation of values approximating to the economic externalities of carbon emissions in the global economy, in relation to the totality of global economic activity. As a consequence of over two centuries of industrialization, the global carbon budget and its associated global carbon balance sheet have clearly diverged from a state of natural equilibrium. Deterioration of carbon budget has affected on asset value of energy intensive companies which have huge fossil fuel reserves, called as stranded assets. Three material identifiable, types of carbon risks, “cap-and-trade” schemes are important economic mechanism aiding both the rectification of these imbalances and restoration of natural carbon cycle disrupted by emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) in both developed and emerging countries. Such schemes establish an economic value to carbon through open market trading. They serve to quantify and to reduce carbon risk, in accordance with appropriate and efficient economic regulation. Monetizing carbon liabilities through these market mechanisms is a means to place boundaries on, and thus to mitigate, the uncertainties of carbon liability. This process of monetization may also transform market risk into an opportunity for economic exploitation.

Forest ecosystems have been identified to be the largest land carbon sink and account for more than half of carbon stored in the terrestrial ecosystems. The influences of climate change on forest ecosystems could have significant implications on global carbon cycling. In this chapter, we reviewed research progresses about climate change impacts on forest ecosystem carbon cycling in the past 20 years. Our review is mostly on field experiments and modeling studies. This chapter starts with a brief description of climate change and forest ecosystems. Different experimental studies are then presented. The impacts of global change such as elevated CO₂, global warming, and changes in precipitation and O₃ on carbon cycling in forest ecosystems are synthesized. Next, we present some modeling studies of forest ecosystem carbon cycling at ecosystem, regional, and global scales. At the end of the chapter, we make some recommendations for future studies.

Biodiversity, the diversity of living things on Earth, is a critical measure of the Earth’s health. Biodiversity provides immense direct benefits to humans, with at least 40 % of the world’s economy being derived from biological resources. Maintaining biodiversity provides greater food security, opportunities for economic development, and provides a foundation for new pharmaceuticals and other medical advances. Ironically, maintaining biodiversity levels and functioning ecosystems is critical to ameliorating climate change; yet, climate change is expected to cause serious disruptions to Earth’s ecological systems, resulting in an overall loss of biodiversity and a reduction in the goods and services provided to humans. Extinction rates in the future are very difficult to predict. However, with immediate and decisive action to mitigate climate change, losses of biodiversity can be minimized and humans can continue to reap many of the benefits nature provides; business as usual scenarios will likely lead to the loss of >50 % of all plant and animal species on Earth and the collapse of many ecosystems worldwide. Such losses will drastically lower the quality of life for humans and will take millions of years to reverse.

Sea-level changes in coasts and estuaries may differ substantially from global mean sea-level variations, showing complex spatial patterns which result from coastal-ocean dynamic processes, movements of the sea floor, and changes in gravity due to water mass redistribution. Because dominant hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes in coastal and estuarine zones are unsteady and of multi-scale, assessment of hazardous storms under the future sea-level rise heavily relies on numerical simulations of dynamic responses to sea-level rise and storm conditions. Thus, this chapter focuses on the following three objectives: (1) investigation of the impacts of hazardous storms/hurricanes and sea-level rise on coasts and estuaries, (2) review of impact assessment approaches by using numerical simulation models, and (3) demonstration of impact assessment of coastal floods and erosions under the combined conditions of hazardous storms (extreme events) and the future sea-level rise scenarios. It emphasizes a systematic approach for the impact assessment of sea-level rise by using integrated coastal process models which are widely used to simulate coastal/estuarine hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes to predict flooding/inundation and coastline erosion/deposition under complex hydrological, morphological, oceanographic, and meteorological conditions. It also demonstrates an application of an integrated coastal model, CCHE2D-Coast, to simulate waves, tides, sediment transport, and morphological changes in an estuary and to predict the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic impacts of hazardous storms and five hypothetical sea-level rise scenarios. It shows that the integrated physical process modeling technique is the most effective method to predict the impact of spatially varying mean sea-level changes in coasts and estuaries and to facilitate coastal flood management, erosion protection, and infrastructure designing/planning against extreme hydrological conditions and climate changes.

Water quality and fish habitat models were developed and applied to investigate impacts of future climate change on cisco oxythermal habitat in Minnesota lakes. Long-term daily water temperature (T) and dissolved oxygen (DO) profiles were simulated for different types of representative lakes (surface area from 0.05 to 50 km2) in Minnesota under the past climate conditions (1961–2008) and projected future climate scenarios. A process-oriented, dynamic, and one-dimensional year-round lake water quality model was developed and applied for the temperature and DO simulations, which were run in daily time steps over a 48-year simulation period. The lake parameters required as model input were surface area (A _s ), maximum depth (H_max), and Secchi depth (as a measure of radiation attenuation and trophic state). Weather records from eight stations in Minnesota and North Dakota were used for model simulations. Two projected future climate scenarios were based on the output of the third-generation Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis coupled general circulation model (CCCma CGCM 3.0) and the Model for Interdisciplinary Research on Climate (MIROC 3.2). The climate scenarios lead to a longer period of hypoxic hypolimnetic conditions in stratified lakes that will result in various negative environmental and ecological impacts in lakes. The study has identified potential refuge lakes important for sustaining cisco habitat under climate warming scenarios. Cisco Coregonus artedi is the most common cold-water stenothermal fish species in lakes over the several northern states in the USA such as Minnesota. To project its chances of survival under future warmer climate conditions, using simulated daily T and DO profiles in 44 representative and 30 virtual lake types, three oxythermal habitat modeling options were used: (1) constant lethal T and DO limits, (2) lethal-niche-boundary curve, and (3) an oxythermal habitat variable, TDO3, i.e., water temperature at DO = 3 mg/L. The fish habitat models using constant and variable lethal limits were validated in the 23 Minnesota lakes of which 18 had cisco mortality while five had no cisco mortality in the unusually warm summer of 2006. Cisco lethal and habitable conditions in the 23 lakes simulated by the models had overall good agreement with observations in 2006. Cisco lethal days were simulated in the 44 representative lake types. Polymictic shallow lakes with lake geometry ratio A _s 0.25/H_max > 5.2 m−0.5 (A _s in m2 and H_max in m) were simulated to typically not support cisco oxythermal habitat under past climate conditions and the future climate scenario (MIROC 3.2). Medium-depth lakes are projected to be most vulnerable to climate warming with most increase in the number of years with cisco kill. The mean daily TDO3 values over a 31-day fixed and variable benchmark periods were calculated for each of simulated years and then averaged over the simulation period for each lake type. Projected increases of the multiyear average TDO3 (called AvgATD3) under the two future climate scenarios and relative to the 47-year simulation period from 1962 to 2008 had averages from 2.6 °C to 3.4 °C. Isopleths of AvgATD3 were interpolated for the 30 simulated virtual lakes on a plot of Secchi depth versus lake geometry ratio used as indicators of trophic state and summer mixing conditions, respectively. Marking the 620 Minnesota lakes with identified cisco populations on the plot of AvgATD3 allowed to partition the 620 lakes into three tiers depending on where they fell between the isopleths: lakes with AvgATD3 ≤ 11 °C (tier 1 lakes) were selected to be most suitable for cisco; lakes with 11 °C < AvgATD3 ≤ 17 °C (tier 2 lakes) had suitable habitat for cisco; and non-refuge lakes with AvgATD3 > 17 °C (tier 3 lakes) would support cisco only at a reduced probability of occurrence or not at all. About 208 (one third) and 160 (one fourth) of the 620 lakes that are known to have cisco populations are projected to maintain viable cisco habitat under the two projected future climate scenarios using the fixed and variable benchmark periods, respectively. These selective lakes have a Secchi depth greater than 2.3 m (mesotrophic and oligotrophic lakes) and are seasonally stratified (geometry ratio less than 2.7 m−0.5). Management strategies were developed and implemented for some of the refuge lakes.

Changes in the atmospheric composition due to anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gases lead to changes in the radiative balance of the earth and consequent alterations in temperature, general wind circulation pattern, and weather patterns. The aftereffects of these changes are likely to manifest as major climate changes over the surface of the earth. Numerical models of the atmosphere have proved to be a very good tool in the assessment of the effect of increasing greenhouse gases on the earth’s climate. These models predicted an increase in the earth’s surface temperature during this century because of accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The effect of buildup of the sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere and its ability to increase the albedo of the atmospheric system, thereby cooling the atmosphere, has been recognized recently by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Agricultural activities are very sensitive to climate conditions. Agricultural decision-makers either are at the mercy of these natural factors or try to be benefit from them. The following decisions should not be made without knowing the elements of climate change.Through the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), the study for rice crop was carried out in order to define the impact of climate change on yield production in addition to flowering date, physiological maturity, and biomass at harvest.The current work contains detailed analysis and investigation of possible changes up to 2017 (Egyptian strategy planning year). The results imply quiet remarkable changes in all agriculture parameters for this period, and sensitivity to climate variations was fairly detected.

In recent decades, global climate change has continued to cause devastating impacts to various places on Earth. Geographic and socioeconomic characteristics in East Africa (EA) and South America (SA) make the regions among the most vulnerable to the current temperature variations attracting several studies with wider implications. Presently, in these two regions, remarkable evidence of climate change includes repeated droughts and increase in drylands affecting water and food availability for humans, livestock, and wildlife (EA); intensification of climate-sensitive diseases; sea level rise; fast retreat of glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mount Kenya in Kenya, and Andean Mountains of South America; change in the rainfall patterns in the Amazon forests and in the whole of EA; and increasing of the frequency and intensity of the El Niño and La Niña phenomenon in the South Pacific that affect both EA and SA, among others. Although these two regions are not major contributors of greenhouse gases (GHGs), the poor conservation of strategic ecosystems through deforestation of the Amazon forests in SA and various forests in EA coupled with intensification of agriculture, land degradation, rapid rates of urbanization, and industrialization all driven by rapid population increase are putting a strain on valuable natural resources whose conservation would be critical in mitigating climate change. Adaptation measures have been constrained by climate change impacts. In both regions, poverty is widespread and climate change impacts have jeopardized most poverty alleviation initiatives including realization of some of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Moreover, both regions have a strong dependency on rain-fed agriculture for economic development with hydroelectricity and biomass as main sources of energy. Consequently, adaptation measures are required for all the sectors but especially in agriculture, health, and energy where the loss of soil productivity, increasing spread of climate-sensitive diseases, and reduction of water and energy source supply are already threatening the social and economic security of both regions. Both regions have a wealth of indigenous knowledge and coping mechanisms of various local communities that should be incorporated into conventional adaptation measures of climate change. This chapter describes the main climate change impacts in EA and SA, vulnerabilities thereon, and adaptation measures that offer an opportunity to the two regions to develop in a sustainable way.

The Dodoma municipality, a semiarid region of Tanzania, is characterized by limited rains, lack of surface water sources, and a high frequency of extreme climate events, particularly droughts and floods. These disadvantaged settings make it vital to study long-term climate trends for signals and patterns of shifting climate regimes for integrity of local livelihood support systems, especially agriculture, recharge, and pasture developments. The area has fairly long climate records, some of which extend to about 100 years. This chapter presents detailed analysis of six climate parameters, namely, rainfall (R), atmospheric relative humidity (ARH), temperature (T), sunshine (S), radiation (RD), wind speed (WS), and evaporation (ET) records from three meteorological stations, namely, Hombolo Agrovet (HMS), Dodoma (DMS), and Makutupora (MMS). The parameters above were statistically and graphically analyzed in four time scales, namely, monthly, seasonal, annual, and time series. The results showed the area is characterized by slight spatial variability in R intensity and T magnitudes with HMS having higher T and rains than DMS and MMS. Further there are clear decreasing trends in ARH and R, while T, S, WS, ET, and RD parameters showed characteristic increasing trends. Thus, except for extreme rain events, particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillations (ENSO), which are characterized by abnormally increased R magnitudes, R intensity has generally decreased in which over the past 91 years, there has been a net R decrease of 54 mm out of annual rains of only about 550 mm/year. Compared to annual time step, however, monthly step reveals more silent features like shortening of the growing seasons. Similarly, the frequency and severity of drought episodes are increasing, all of which adversely impact agriculture, pasture development, and recharge. Similarly, disappearance of R in some months, shifting seasonality, and general declining R intensities and magnitudes are clearly observed. May rains have largely disappeared, while in January, February, March, and April rains have decreased and hence shortening the length of growing season. On the other hand, clear warming trends and declining ARH were also observed. Yet the area is marked by cyclic wetting and drying events where in recent years, drying cycles have been prolonged. However, there is more variability in the mean minimum temperature (MMT) than in mean maximum temperatures (MMMT) in all stations. Between 1961 and 2012, there has been a net 1.13 and 0.778 °C increases in annual MMT and MMMT in DMS, respectively. Like for R trends, silent features are more evident under monthly T data than annual time steps where it is clear that June had the highest increase in MMT (1.54 °C), while April had the least (only 0.662 °C). However, both trends have the potential of affecting major livelihood support systems particularly agriculture and pasture development, but also local groundwater recharge that is vital for the local economy. The study area therefore offers a rare opportunity to understand and manage changing climate regimes including on extent of dry spells and longevity of growing seasons. The changing climate trends consequently call for significant adaptation and mitigation strategies so that local activities adjust to the current climate regimes particularly on onset and end of rainfall seasons and recharge fluxes.

Climate change and rainfall variability are evident in rainfall amount and the hydrologic growing season across the zone located between longitudes 3° and 15° east of the Greenwich meridian and latitudes 10° and 14° north of the Equator. These changes have continued to escalate the vulnerability of people’s livelihood, as extreme weather conditions lead to reduction in agricultural yields which subsequently aggravate food insecurity. There is a general understanding of climate change and variability across the belt as indicated by the varying adaptation practices by individuals and communities to enable them to cope with the challenges of changing climate. Generally, in Nigeria, there are numerous crucial policies and programs aimed at addressing issues related to climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability. However, the major concern is the level of implementation and its role in promoting, developing, and instituting effective adaptation strategies and practices that will enhance resilience of the vulnerable communities. Consequently, bottom-up approaches should be developed and promoted to identify and document existing adaptation practices, alongside with assessing these adaptation practices for scaling up potential cost-effective practices for enhanced climate change adaptation, attainment of food security, and resilience.

This chapter reports the main findings of research projects supported by the Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) over the last 5 years (2009–2013). The research projects reported focus on adaptation needs, climate change impacts, and the economics of adaptation projects as well as on efforts to link researchers with local government planners to enhance science-based adaptation planning. The lessons derived from these micro-level EEPSEA studies are important because the impacts and adaptation solutions reported are often local, as they are carried out by households, communities, and local governments. Hence, these studies help in understanding how various groups are affected by climate change and what limits their adaptation choices, which are important in designing ways to increase their resilience to climate change.Field-level assessment of impacts showed that extreme climate events (i.e., super typhoons and associated flooding) cost households more than a third of their annual household income per event. As future extreme climate events are expected to be more frequent and intense, future damage may be even bigger and will most likely drive vulnerable households toward extreme poverty. Household adaptation actions in the various study sites are generally very crude and mostly reactive (e.g., strengthening housing units, using sandbags during flooding, storing of food, evacuation) rather than preventive (e.g., relocation, building multistorey and stronger housing units). This is largely explained by the limited resources available to most vulnerable households for investment in stronger adaptation measures.The studies also show that strengthening community ties can increase household and community resilience. It also increases the efficacy of using communities as vital conduits of climate information dissemination. Moreover, results indicate that climate communication policies and interventions should go beyond informing people of climate hazard risks; they should also provide information that would allow people to assess their capabilities as well as permit technical assessments of various adaptation options.Local governments need support in adaptation planning. The two action research projects carried out with funding support from EEPSEA and collaborating organizations showed that local government officials are receptive to such research collaborations and are very much willing to learn from science-based adaptation planning. Research to identify efficient or cost-effective adaptation options was highly appreciated by local government units. They need support to seek climate financing for these adaptation programs however.

The Institute for Agricultural Environment of Vietnam conducted a research to study climate change impacts on agriculture, develop climate change adaptation measures, and identify mitigation options. Climate change impacts were assessed through past, current, and future conditions. Past information showed damages due to extreme weather events. Current production and climate conditions showed potential vulnerability. Future climate change scenarios and crop growth modeling predicted long-term impacts on crop production. The impacts of many adaptation measures and mitigation options were evaluated to reduce risks and losses from climate change and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Results showed that climate change has caused strong impacts on agriculture in Vietnam. It has caused severe damages in the past, and it is likely to cause high vulnerability and heavy crop production losses in the future. Flat lands experience stronger impacts than highlands, with the Mekong River Delta suffering the strongest impacts, followed by the Coastal Central area and Red River Delta. As a country strongly impacted by climate change, it has suffered many extreme events and disasters. The agricultural sector has developed suitable adaptation measures to cope with the extreme events. Vietnam maintains a high agricultural productivity not only to feed more than 70 million people but also to export a high amount of food and foodstuffs. Vietnam is the leading cashew nut exporter, second highest rice exporter, and third highest coffee exporter in the world. However, with extensive areas of rice paddy production and high animal populations, Vietnam’s agriculture contributes substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. As a result, the Vietnamese agricultural sector is developing and implementing many mitigation options, such as alternative wetting and drying irrigation, biogas digestion, composting, and converting rice land to non-rice land. These policies target a 20 % GHG emission reduction by 2020 in comparison to the “business-as-usual” scenario.

Megacities with populations of more than ten million people in compact urban areas are the most vulnerable environments on the earth. The impacts of climate change on these megacities will be multi-faceted and severe, especially in developing countries, due to fast growth rate and inefficient adaptation. It is very important therefore to understand the contributions of the growth of megacities to climate change, especially in the developing countries. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is one of the fastest-growing megacities in the world; its population increased from 6.621 million (in 1990) to 16.982 million (in 2014). Today, Dhaka is the 11th largest megacity in the world and is projected to be the 6th largest megacity in the world with a population of 27.374 million by the year 2030.Remote sensing technology has been successfully used for mapping, modeling, and assessing urban growth and associated environmental studies for many years. This research investigates how the intensity of the urban heat island (UHI) effects correlates with continuous decrease in the greenness of the city of Dhaka, as measured from satellite observations. The results of this study indicate that Landsat imagery-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) can be used to investigate the changes in greenness in the city of Dhaka from 1980 to 2014. The changes in greenness can be correlated with the increase in the intensity of UHI effects in the city of Dhaka as determined using Landsat thermal data from 1989 to 2014.

The issue of waste management is now a global problem because it is not only damaging soils but also deteriorating the natural state of air and water. This chapter focuses on two important aspects of solid waste in Pakistan, i.e., domestic solid waste and agricultural solid waste. The industrial and commercial activities are contributing heavily in large quantity of solid waste. Solid waste comprises of heterogeneous substances. The most common substances may belong to paper, aluminum, plastic, glass, ferrous materials, nonferrous waste, yard waste, construction and demolition wastes, etc. The issue of management of solid waste in Pakistan is a major environmental problem. Various research findings indicate that solid waste generation in Pakistan varies from 0.283 to 0.612 Kg/capita/day, while various studies indicate that the waste generation growth rate is 2.4 % per year. As a general practice, solid waste is commonly dumped on low-lying land or open vacant land area. Then, it is burned by sanitary staff to reduce its volume so that the life span of the dumpsite can be enhanced. However, the dumped solid waste does not burn completely but rather produces clouds of smoke that can be seen from miles away. This causes obnoxious smell and creates a breeding ground for flies and rats.Various findings indicate that currently, about 60,000 t/day of solid waste is generated in Pakistan. No weighing or segregation facilities are located at any disposal sites. The wastes generated from hospitals and industrial activities are simply treated as ordinary wastes. They are jointly collected and shifted to the dump sites. The research findings indicate that common composition of solid waste in Pakistan contains plastic, rubber, metal, paper, cardboard, textile waste, glass, food, animal waste, leaves, grass, straws and fodder, bones, wood, stones, and fines to certain extent. Out of this the food wastes are 8.4–21 % of the total solid waste; paper waste 15–25 %; leaves, grass, straw, and fodder 10.2–15.6 %; fines 29.7–47.5 %; and recyclables 13.6–23.55 %. Keeping in view this proportion of solid waste, a sustainable and viable management of solid waste may be adopted by recycling, composting, and waste to energy.In the other part of the chapter, focus is on agricultural waste which is actually agricultural biomass. Being an agricultural country, huge quantity of biomass is generated and remains unutilized or burned in the agricultural fields causing air pollution. It can be observed from Tables 6, 7, 8, and 9 the biomass residue of various crops such as wheat straw, rice husk, rice straw, cane trash, bagasse, and cotton stalk is in different ratios. These ratios are wheat and wheat straw ratio 1:1, 20 % rice husk found as waste in paddy, paddy and rice straw ratio 1:1, 23 % cane trash found as waste in sugarcane harvest, 30 % wet bagasse found as waste in sugarcane industry, and cotton and cotton sticks ratio 1:3.Keeping in view the availability factor, the different agricultural residue biomass is used as animal feed and also as a raw source of energy at local level; hence, we theoretically consider 40 % availability of total average amount of agricultural residue biomass, i.e., 5354.73 × 103 t/year. Theoretically considering average calorific value of agricultural residue biomass 3500 KCal/Kg, then the theoretical energy content = 3500 k Cal/Kg × 5354.73 × 106 Kg = 1.91 × 1013KCal (heating value) if this amount of heat energy is multiplied by 4.81 for converting K Cal into KJ = 7.97 × 1013 KJ or KW-S. Hence, the power plants of about 10,000 MW are possible to be installed in the province of Sindh with the use of only 40 % of single source by agricultural residue biomass of only major crops.This step will help in reducing air pollution in the region as a whole, and on larger scale it will help in restoring the climatic changes occurring around the world.

Coping with sustainable civilization and utilization of renewable energy, climate change mitigation is one of the big challenges. Obtaining metal resources from urban mines (waste) for supporting the civilization of human races will contribute not only to support sustainable development of civilization society to the future but also to mitigate climate change. Urban mines are one of the promising resources especially for poor natural metal resource countries such as Japan. Fortunately, Japan is one of the major rare metal consumers and also is capable of smelting rare metal by its own. Japan’s urban mine will be more practical with top class recycling technology. In addition to these technological developments, it is necessary to reform the society system in order to realize productive and economical urban mines which overcome the natural mine. Furthermore, in order to continue a steady development of rare metal recycling, it is necessary to conduct well-planned technology development based on the prediction of the future material usage. In this chapter, the authors show the technical subjects for realizing total circulating usage of metal resources including rare metals and an attempt currently tackled in Japan.

The University of Mississippi offered a seminar course entitled Climate Change – Causes, Impacts and Solutions twice in the last 4 years. The immediate goal of this course is to raise the public awareness of the climate change issue. The second objective is to consolidate a knowledge base for the various outreach, education, and research activities on mitigating the climate change. Junior, senior, and graduate students of science and engineering majors were encouraged to take this course. About 25 speakers from Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana gave lectures that covered their expertise in a wide spectrum of areas that include causes, impacts, and solutions of climate change. The slides used in these lectures are posted on the course web site for public dissemination: http://home.olemiss.edu/~cmchengs/Global%20Warming/. Students chose a specific research topic for approval in the early stage of the class. They submitted their research papers and made presentations at the end of the semester. Their overall performance is based on their classroom enthusiasm, final report, and presentation. When the course was offered for the first time, they also made recommendations to the Chancellor’s Ole Miss Green Initiative of the University of Mississippi on the reduction of carbon emissions in the community. This chapter discusses the motivation, content, and outcomes of this course in detail.

In the high-mobility countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), many governments are seeking to reduce personal mobility, particularly car travel, for a variety of reasons. Reductions can be justified in general by concerns about global climate change, oil depletion and supply security, and traffic casualties. In urban areas, additional concerns are air pollution, traffic congestion, take-up of land by transport infrastructure, and quality of urban life. Similarly, a variety of technological approaches are possible for addressing these problems in the context of global warming mitigation. This chapter examines policies for mobility reduction, as these can have a significant impact on climate change mitigation. It mainly restricts itself to the high-mobility countries of the OECD and uses four such countries (Australia, Japan, the UKUnited Kingdom (UK), and the USUnited States (US)) as case studies.The approaches considered here include:Using modern Information Technology (IT) advances to promote travel substitutionCar pooling, especially in urban areasLand use planning, particularly increased urban densitiesEncouraging the use of more environmentally friendly travel modesRaising the overall level (and perhaps also changing the structure) of motoring costsReducing the convenienceTravel convenience of car travel.It is found that the use of IT, car pooling, and land use planning, whether voluntary or legislated, cannot be expected to produce much reduction in either car passenger-km or vehicle-km. Nor will reliance on voluntary approaches for car travel reduction by encouraging more use of environmentally friendly travel modes. Only the last two approaches can produce large and sustained reductions in travel greenhouse gas emissions, but heavy reliance on market forces such as very large increases in motoring costs is inequitable in OECD countries. The only equitable approach is to reduce the convenience of car travel, for example, by large travel speedTravel speed reductions and by a reversal of the usual present ranking of travel modes: car, public Transportationtransport, and active modes.

Domestic energy forms a significant part of total energy use in OECD countries, accounting for 22 % in the USA in 2011. Together with private travel, domestic energy reductions are one of the few ways that households can directly reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Although domestic energy costs form a minor part of average household expenditure, the unit costs for domestic electricity and natural gas vary by a factor of 4 and 5, respectively, among OECD countries, and per capita use is strongly influenced by these costs. Other influences on domestic energy use are household income, household size, residence type (apartment/flat vs. detached house), and regional climate. Numerous campaigns have been carried out in various countries to reduce household energy use. A large literature has analyzed both the results of these studies and the general psychology of pro-environmental behavior, yet the findings often seem to conflict with the national statistical data.The authors argue that the rising frequency of extreme weather events (especially heat waves, storms, and floods), together with sea level rises, is likely to be a key factors in getting both the public and policy makers to treat global climate change as a matter of urgency. Costs of domestic energy are likely to rise in the future, possibly because of carbon taxes. But such taxes will need to be supplemented by other policies that not only encourage the use of more efficient energy-consuming appliances but also unambiguously support energy and emission reductions in all sectors.

A NASA-funded Innovations in Climate Education (NICE) Program has been launched in Alabama to improve high school and middle school education in climate change science. The overarching goal is to generate a better informed public that understands the consequences of climate change and can contribute to sound decision making on related issues. Inquiry-based NICE modules have been incorporated into the existing course of study for 9–12 grade biology, chemistry, and physics classes. New modules in three major content areas (earth and space science, environmental science, physical science) have been introduced to selected 6–8 grade science teachers in the summer of 2013 and 2014. The environmental science module allows students to explore the relationship between extreme climate events, water resources, and water pollution. In the earth science module, students investigate the effects of volcanic eruptions on Earth’s atmospheric composition, global climate, and local landscape and water resources. The physical science module introduces students to the concept of urban climate and heating island effects. The NICE modules employ Roger Bybee’s five E’s of the learning cycle: engage, explore, explain, extend, and evaluate. Module learning activities include field data collection, laboratory measurements, and data visualization and interpretation. K-12 teachers are trained in the use of these modules for their classroom through unique partnership with Alabama Science in Motion (ASIM) and the Alabama Math Science Technology Initiative (AMSTI). Certified AMSTI teachers attend summer professional development workshops taught by ASIM and AMSTI specialists to learn to use NICE modules. Scientists are partnered with learning and teaching specialists and lead teachers to implement and test efficacy of instructional materials and models. This chapter serves as an example of how climate change education can be brought into K-12 schools.

This chapter will describe some simple models that have been used to explain the basic principles of the Earth’s climate to primary school students (aged 4–11), secondary school students (aged 11–16), post-16 students (16–19), and the general public (all ages) including those with disabilities. It will then describe a range of hands-on practical activities that demonstrate aspects of the climate system at the appropriate level. Assessment and impact of these activities on the learner’s level of cognition are then presented showing that the hands-on approach is a most effective way of communicating such concepts irrespective of the age of the learner. Furthermore, the varied impacts of a “lecture demonstration,” that is, a talk where points are illustrated by exemplar experiments that visually portray the science concept, are presented.The many misconceptions that surround the understanding of the Earth’s climate system and how teachers and other science communicators can deal with such issues in a classroom setting are discussed. The sourcing and use of the myriad datasets linked with the Earth’s climate that are freely available for schools’ projects are discussed with illustrations drawn from projects undertaken already.Often the impact of such engagement activities on the provider themselves is ignored; here the tangible benefits to all providers involved are discussed with some case studies as illustrations.Finally, the future prospect for the Earth’s climate is nearly always portrayed as negative. In this chapter, the idea of stabilization wedges and ways that the worst-case scenarios for climate change can be averted is discussed. Using a variety of metrics, it is possible for a wide range of learners to appreciate the impact of any mitigation strategy, that is, literally “speaking in a language they can understand.”

Engineering the climate by means of carbon dioxide removal (CDR), Earth radiation management (ERM), and/or solar radiation management (SRM) approaches has recaptured the attention of scientists, policy makers, and the public. Climate engineering is being assessed as a set of tools to deliberately, and on a large scale, moderate or retard global warming. There are several concepts available, like injecting aerosol-forming SO₂ into the stratosphere or placing huge objects in orbit to partly shade Earth from incoming radiation or fertilizing the ocean with iron for increased algae growth and creation of carbon sinks. Such concepts are highly speculative, and irrespective of whether they would work, they bear huge risks, from adversely affecting the complex climate system on a regional or global scale to potentially triggering droughts, famine, or wars. More research is needed to better understand promising concepts and to work them out in depth, so that options are made available in case they should become necessary in the future, when climate change mitigation and adaptation measures do not suffice and fast action becomes imperative. Apart from the technological hurdles, which are anyhow mostly far beyond today’s engineering capabilities, huge social, moral, and political issues would have to be overcome. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight a few common concepts of CDR, ERM, and SRM for climate engineering to mitigate climate change.

Global energy use, fossil fuel carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, and atmospheric CO₂ levels continue to rise, despite some progress in mitigation efforts. Improving energy efficiency is seen as an important means of reducing emissions, but absolute reductions in global energy use remain elusive because of continued growth in the numbers of important energy-using devices such as transport vehicles, and energy rebound. Limiting the rise in average surface temperature above preindustrial to 2 °C is widely regarded as the limit for avoiding dangerous anthropogenic climate change. Given the magnitude of CO₂ emission reductions necessary for this limit to be met, other approaches are needed for reducing energy use and its resultant emissions. This chapter discusses social efficiency (nontechnical means for reducing energy use) and stresses the social and environmental context in which energy consumption occurs in various sectors. Three important sectors for energy use, transport, buildings, and agriculture, are used to illustrate the potential for social efficiency in energy reductions. We argue that by focusing more clearly on the human needs energy use is meant to satisfy, it is possible to find new, less energy-intensive ways of meeting these needs.

This chapter summarizes research on the potential impacts of climate change on households, with a particular focus on contributions from different methodological approaches to understanding impacts for households in developing countries. Agriculture has been a central focus of this literature, both because of the sensitivity of the agricultural sector to a changing climate and also because of the importance of agriculture for the livelihoods of the poor. The literature review shows that developing countries are largely expected to be disproportionally hurt by projected changes in temperature, precipitation, and extreme events. On the other hand, the actual household level response to these changes is not well understood, and there are still gaps in the methodological approaches to understanding these issues. The recent literature reveals promising approaches that may complement and improve existing methods as more data becomes available.

Natural gas has gained a dominant role in current world clean energy development due to the significant advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking that is now increasing exponentially across the world, is the process of extracting natural gas from shale rock layers or other tight rock formations within the earth. Specifically, horizontal drilling combined with traditional vertical drilling allows injection of highly pressurized fracking fluids into the shale layers to create new channels within the rock, from which natural gas is released at much higher rates than traditional drilling. For example, the USA holds the largest known shale gas reserves in the world. Fracking in the USA has boosted economy and local community growth. However, studies have found that hydraulic fracking threatens water resources, harms air quality, changes landscapes, and damages ecosystems. Furthermore, methane emissions from drilling, fracking processes, and the related natural gas storage and transportation have become a critical issue, which raises the question whether hydraulic fracking can mitigate world climate change. Some studies have obtained significantly different conclusions of climate mitigation impacts of fracking. More studies and further measuring and observational surveys are needed in order to have a comprehensive understanding of hydraulic fracturing’s impacts on climate mitigation.

Global warming and climate change have been linked to man-induced carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions due to the correlation between raised global surface temperatures and increased ambient CO₂ concentrations during the last century. The man-made CO₂ emissions are primarily from burning of fossil fuels for energy production and transportation. To limit the emissions, CO₂ sequestration has been applied to inject CO₂ into various deep surface formations after capturing CO₂ from the flue gases. The topic of transport through porous media in this chapter is to summarize investigations of migration of CO₂ after sequestration, gas transport through coal particles during oxy-combustion, and oxygen transport in membranes during air separation. A general mechanism has been provided first in the introduction to briefly explain transport through porous media. The following sections, respectively, include a general review of recent literatures on the subjects of CO₂ migration after sequestration, CO₂-oxygen transport in oxy-combustion, and oxygen transport in membrane at high temperatures. Understanding the fundamental mechanisms and processes of the transport through porous media allows mathematical models to be used to evaluate and optimize the performance and design of these systems.

The efficient use of energy, or energy efficiency, has been widely recognized as an ample and cost-efficient means to save energy and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Up to 1/3 of the worldwide energy demand in 2050 can be saved by energy efficiency measures. In this chapter, several important aspects of energy efficiency are addressed. After an introduction and definition of energy efficiency, historic development and state-of-the-art and future trends of energy efficiency are presented in the light of life cycle assessment and total cost of ownership considerations. Energy efficiency in the sectors energy production, energy transmission and storage, transportation, industry, buildings, and appliances is reviewed. Concurrent measures such as recycling or novel materials are also discussed and touched upon. Energy conservation is covered in the final section of this chapter. References for deeper study are provided with an emphasis on guidelines on how to improve energy efficiency. Given the breadth of the subject, only exemplary coverage can be aimed for. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the significance of energy efficiency and to provide cross-learnings from achievements in different sectors so that energy efficiency in the readers’ own facilities and installations can be assessed and improved with cost-effective means as a contribution to climate change mitigation, cost savings, and improved economic competitiveness.

Transportation of people and of goods plays an important role in modern life. It is a major source of anthropogenic CO₂. This chapter, after introducing some fundamentals of natural climate fluctuations as described by Milankovitch cycles, describes the causes and consequences of man-made climate change and the motivation for increased fuel efficiency in transportation systems. To this end, contemporary and future ground-based and air-based transportation technologies are discussed. It is shown that concepts that were already given up, such as turbine-driven cars, might be worthwhile for further studies. Alternative fuels such as hydrogen, ethanol and biofuels, and alternative power sources, e.g., compressed air engines and fuel cells, are presented from various perspectives. The chapter also addresses the contribution of CO₂ emissions of the supply chain and over the entire life cycle for different transportation technologies.

The use of thermal insulations to reduce heat flow across the building envelope has been an accepted energy conservation strategy for many decades. Materials available for use as building insulation include naturally occurring fibers and particles, man-made fibers, reflective systems, cellular plastics, evacuated systems, aerogels, and hybrid insulations that combine two or more types of insulation. This chapter discusses the basic theory of insulation and the way they are evaluated. Performance limitations are identified, and discussion of the performance of building elements that represent combinations of insulation and other building material is contained in this chapter. The importance of air infiltration and moisture control is discussed. The language associated with thermal insulation technology and key thermal properties have been included to help the reader use the vast literature associated with building thermal insulation.

The efficient use of energy is important to restrain the emission of greenhouse effect gases. Thermal energy storage and heat transport technology enable to utilize the renewable energy and the waste heat which are generally unstable, maldistributed, and thin. They also enable to operate energy devices at a highly efficient condition. This chapter introduces some basic research and development activities of thermal energy storage and heat transport, especially latent heat utilization. First, the following fundamental knowledge of thermal energy storage is explained: (1) the functions of thermal energy storage, (2) the classification of storage methods, (3) the characteristics of thermal energy storage materials especially phase change materials (PCMs), and (4) the constitutions of thermal energy storage devices. Other characteristics and challenges of latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) which utilize supercooling phenomenon are also explained. Second, several examples of the practical use of LHTES including the utilization of snow and ice are discussed. In the same way, several characteristics and examples of the practical use of the heat transport using latent heat are also explained. Furthermore, recent developments on the following research subjects are introduced: (1) thermal energy storage for hot water supply using the supercooling phenomenon of sugar alcohol, (2) heat storage for space heating using the supercooling of hydrate, (3) the improvement of thermal characteristics of paraffin wax as a PCM, (4) a steam accumulator using sugar alcohol, (5) pipeless heat transport using sugar alcohol or hydrate, and (6) heat transport method using the microencapsulated PCM slurry.

Smart grid holds a great promise for a cleaner, more efficient power; healthier air; and lower greenhouse gas emissions. A smart grid vastly improves energy efficiency and is already revolutionizing our energy future. A smart power grid delivers electricity from suppliers to consumers using digital technology with two-way communication to control appliances at consumers’ homes to save energy, reduce cost, and increase reliability and transparency. A smart grid includes an intelligent monitoring system that keeps track of all electricity flowing in the system. It also incorporates the capability of integrating renewable electricity, such as solar and wind, at the consumer end. For houses equipped with solar panels and/or wind turbines, the goal is for them to consume no more energy than they produce and to produce net zero carbon emissions. The future with smart grid may look like a lot of distributed “green” generation at the consumer end replacing the conventional generation and thus easing its way to more sustainable future energy needs.

In spite of several successful alternative energy production installations in recent years, it is difficult to point to more than one or two examples of a modern industrial nation obtaining the bulk of its energy from sources other than oil, coal, and natural gas. Thus, a meaningful energy transition from conventional to renewable sources of energy is yet to be realized. It is also reasonable to assume that a full replacement of the energy currently derived from fossil fuels with energy from alternative sources is probably impossible over the short term. For example, the prospects for large-scale production of cost-effective renewable electricity remain to be generated utilizing either the wind energy or certain forms of solar energy. These renewable energies face important limitations due to intermittency, remoteness of good resource regions, and scale potential. One of the promising approaches to overcome most of the limitations is to implement many recent advances in solar thermal electricity technology. In this section, various advanced solar thermal technologies are reviewed with an emphasis on new technologies and new approaches for rapid market implementation.The first topic is the conventional parabolic trough collector, which is the most established technology and is under continuing development with the main focus being on the installed cost reductions with modern materials, along with heat storage. This is followed by the recently developed linear Fresnel reflector technologies. In two-axis tracking technologies, the advances in dish-Stirling systems are presented. More recently, the solar thermal electricity applications in two-axis tracking using tower technology are gaining ground, especially with multi-tower solar array technology. A novel solar chimney technology is also discussed for large-scale power generation. Non-tracking concentrating solar technologies, when used in a cogeneration system, offer low-cost electricity, albeit at lower efficiencies – an approach that seems to be most suitable in rural communities.

Historically, the growth and prosperity of human civilization have mainly been propelled by fossil energy (coal and petroleum) usage. Decades of tested and proven technologies have led to a continuous increase in demand for fossil-based fuels. As a result, we are now finding ourselves at the threshold of a critical tipping point where environmental consequences and global climate can be irreversibly affected and hence cannot be ignored. More than ever before, our unending and rapidly growing need for energy has necessitated urgent action on efforts to examine alternative forms of energy sources that are eco-friendly, sustainable, and economical.There are several alternatives to fossil-based fuels. These include biomass, solar, wind, geothermal, and nuclear options as prominent and possible sources. All these options can assist us with reducing our dependence on fossil fuels. Solar energy, being one of them, has the unique potential to meet a broad gamut of current global energy demand. These include domestic applications such as solar-assisted cooking, space, heating, as well as industrial processes such as drying. Solar energy utilization in several key areas such as electricity generation (photovoltaics), clean fuel production (hydrogen), environmental remediation (photocatalytic degradation of pollutants), and reduction of greenhouse gases (CO₂ conversion to value-added chemicals) is also of great interest. A key challenge that must be addressed to boost commercialization of solar energy technologies, and common to these applications, is material properties and solar energy utilization efficiency. To realize large-scale and efficient solar energy utilization, application-based materials with a unique combination of properties have to be developed. The material has to absorb visible light and be cost competitive, composed of earth-abundant elements, and nontoxic, all at the same time.This chapter consists of ten sections. The first introduction section consists of a detailed discussion on the importance of energy in human activity, the effects of fossil fuels on climate and human lifestyle, and materials that meet many of the above criteria. The second section provides a short and critical comparison of solar energy with other alternatives. The third section provides a quick review of the basic concepts of solar energy. The commonly employed toolkits used in the characterization of materials for solar energy conversion are discussed in section “Toolkit for Characterization of Photoactive Materials (PMs).”. Some of these tools can be used to evaluate specific optical, electronic, and catalytic properties of materials. Section five discusses the main categories of materials that are either commercialized or under development. The challenges to developing new materials for solar energy conversion are addressed in section “Materials for Solar Energy Utilization”. Section “Integrating Tested Concepts of Solar Energy Utilization to Produce Fuels in an Effective Way” outlines some of the main strategies to test the promising materials before a large-scale commercialization attempt is initiated. Section “Commercial Ventures” profiles companies and institutions that are engaged in efforts to evaluate, improve, and commercialize solar energy technologies. This segment provides information about the product from a few representative companies around the world and their niche in the commercial market. Section “Future Work” provides a general outlook into the trend in solar energy utilization, commercialization, and its future. Finally, section “Conclusion” provides the authors’ concluding perspective about the solar energy as a pathway for reducing our dependence on fossil fuels. At the conclusion of this chapter, we have also provided over 100 references that are highly recommended for further in-depth study into various aspects of solar energy.

Consuming about 20 % of total energy annually in the USA (according to DOE in 1994), the chemical industry is a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It has been widely recognized that a significant reduction of energy consumption and GHG emissions in chemical processes must implement advanced heat integration technologies in a holistic way.Heat integration is a family of technologies for improving energy efficiency. The technologies can be applied to the design of heat exchanger networks, heat-integrated reaction-separation systems, etc. Pinch analysis is the foundation of heat integration. In this chapter, the applicability of pinch technology in GHG emission reduction is reviewed first. Furthermore, the concept of “total site,” which is valuable for energy targeting and integration at regional level, is described. A “total site” includes not only traditional industrial processes but also commercial and residential energy users into the scope.Then, more advanced concepts in heat integration are introduced. The concepts are developed based on the observation of problems arising in heat integration applications – stability of heat-integrated systems in operation. The known modeling work addressing these issues will be reviewed thoroughly. The basic principles on how the disturbance-propagation-rejection models for these major chemical processing systems can be adopted in process synthesis and analysis stages will be discussed.The concept of “total site” has been further extended to greenhouse gas emission targeting and reduction. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission-focused pinch analysis methodology is reviewed, which is valuable for obtaining the optimal energy resource mix of fossil fuel and renewable energy for the regional or national energy sector.

Process control takes place in all power plants. The main task of all automatic controllers is to assure the optimal values of their controlled variables under all circumstances. The quality of operation of these controllers has evidently a crucial effect on the way of operation of the entire power plant. Whether a power plant – based on either renewable resources or fossil fuels – is operated in a highly effective way, or is a rather resource-consuming one, is evidently of very high importance regarding emissions and other ecological aspects. This fact is the reason for discussing in this chapter the possible ways for increasing the level of control quality in power plants.An overview will be given at the beginning about the ways and tools the advanced control methods offer – in case of their more intensive applications in power plants – for protecting the environment and for mitigating the climate change. It will be followed by a concise but goal-oriented introduction of the most relevant control methods together with their evaluations regarding the aspects of their applicabilities in power plants. Because the way toward obtaining the environmental benefits offered by the advanced control methods is not a trivial one, some considerations, aspects, and hints will be given on this issue in the next part. A few successful power plant applications will be introduced afterward, and the actual main development directions will be outlined at the very end of this chapter.

This chapter discusses mobile and area sources of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The CO₂ emissions from mobile sources are accounted globally for 23 % of world energy-related GHG emissions in 2004. In the United States, the CO₂ emissions in 2004 from mobile sources included 28 % of all anthropogenic GHG emissions, and the missions from mobile sources grew 29 % between 1990 and 2004. The CO₂ emissions for several megacities, the carbon footprint expressed in CO₂, and the CO₂ per capita used as a sustainability scale are also reviewed. Traffic congestion and gridlock in most urban areas and cities have grown substantially worse over the years, causing commuters to waste millions of hours in traffic jams. The resulting vehicle emissions have adverse impacts on the environment, both in air quality degradation and increases in GHG. Examples are presented on contributions of built environment and transportation-related air pollution and GHG emissions from mobile sources, cities, and other populated areas.The heat island effect causes an increase in surface temperature and air temperature in the built-up areas of a city. Urban sprawl and associated transportation-related emissions also tend to increase area temperature. An increase in air temperature results in a higher rate of photochemical reactions that form ground-level ozone and smog during hot summer days. Additionally, it requires extra electricity to cool down buildings in summer days, resulting in increased energy demands, larger air-conditioning bills, and elevated emissions of GHG and ozone precursors.Sustainable multimodal transportation network and urban infrastructure facilities are warranted to support urban communities in view of the demand of energy, reduce public health hazards resulting from air pollution and urban smog, and mitigate adverse impacts of GHG emissions on the environment. Innovative geospatial applications of high-resolution satellite imageries are presented to estimate built-up area and traffic volume. Real-time intelligent transportation system technologies can also improve traffic flow, reduce congestion and air pollution, and decrease GHG emissions. Government agencies and cities worldwide can use CO₂ emission per capita sustainability scale for evaluating effectiveness of sustainable transportation and development policies. Country laws and regulations to reduce transport-related emissions and international accords on global responsibility for CO₂ reductions are reviewed.

The world has a wide variety of biofeedstocks. Biomass is a term used to describe any material of recent biological origin, including plant materials such as trees, grasses, agricultural crops, or animal manure. In this chapter, the formation of biomass by photosynthesis and the different mechanisms of photosynthesis giving rise to biomass classification are discussed. Then, these classifications and composition of biomass are explained. The various methods used to make biomass amenable for energy, fuel, and chemical production are discussed next. These methods include pretreatment of biomass, biochemical routes of conversion like fermentation, anaerobic digestion, transesterification, and thermochemical routes like gasification and pyrolysis. An overview of current and future biomass feedstock materials, for example, algae, perennial grass, and other forms of genetically modified plants, is described including the current feedstock availability in the United States.

Biomass can provide both hydrocarbon fuels and chemical compounds such as alcohols, gums, sugars, lipid-based products, etc. Biomass-derived fuels have acquired a lot of attention during recent years because of the abundance of supply of resources and lower green house gas emissions. Grasses, agricultural residues, animal residues and waste, used oils, etc., can be used as starting materials in the production of biofuels. Ethanol and biodiesel have found greatest application and contribute significantly to fuels. However, there is growing interest in other alternatives: hydrogen, methane, butanol, renewable diesel, and petroleum compatible fuels from advanced catalytic biotech processes. Characteristics of various feedstocks and fuels, processes for conversion of biomass to biofuels, the physical, chemical factors, and limitations affecting the conversion of biomass to fuels are discussed in this chapter. Process parameters include pH, temperature, and residence time. Additionally, chemical parameters include carbon source, nutrients, acid and alkaline hydrolysis agents, and phenolic inhibitors and sugars generated within the process. Several limitations to bioconversion of biomass are described such as size reduction, crystallinity, byproduct inhibition to fermentation, deactivation of cellulases, ethanol tolerance by yeast, and cofermentation of various sugars. Recent innovations and future developments in recombinant DNA technology and protein engineering are aimed at overcoming limitations to bioconversion. Understanding the limitations and applying suitable biotechnological applications will support future developments for producing biofuels.

Bioenergy is presently the largest global contributor of renewable energy. Biomass thermal conversion has significant potential to expand in the production of heat, electricity, and fuels for transport. In addition, energy from biomass can contribute significantly toward the objectives of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and alleviating problems related to climate change. There are three main thermal processes – combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis – to convert the biomass into various energy products.Combustion is well established and widely practiced with many examples of dedicated plant and co-firing applications. At present, biomass co-firing in modern coal power plants is the most cost-effective biomass use for power generation. Due to feedstock availability issues, dedicated biomass plants for combined heat and power (CHP) are typically of smaller size.Gasification provides a competitive way to convert diverse, highly distributed, and low-value lignocellulosic biomass to syngas for combined heat and power generation, synthesis of liquid fuels, and production of hydrogen (H₂). A number of gasifier configurations have been developed. Biomass integrated gasification combined cycles (BIGCC) using black liquor are already in use. Gasification can also coproduce liquid fuels, and such advanced technologies are currently being investigated in research and pilot plants.Pyrolysis is thermal destruction of biomass in the absence of air/oxygen to produce liquid bio-oil, syngas, and charcoal. Fast pyrolysis for liquid fuel production is currently of particular interest because liquid fuel can be stored and transported more easily and at lower cost than solid biomass. Pyrolysis technology is currently at the demonstration stage, and technologies for upgrading the bio-oil to transport fuels are applied at the R&D and pilot stage.This chapter provides an overview of the state-of-the-art knowledge on biomass thermal conversion: the recent breakthrough in the technology, the current research and development activities, and the challenges associated with its increased deployment.

The different biomass conversion routes to chemicals will be described in this chapter. Chapter “Biomass as Feedstock,” gives an overview of the methods used to obtain chemicals from biomass. These processes along with some other chemical conversions can be used for the manufacture of chemicals from biomass. A list of chemicals compiled based on the carbon number in the chemicals will be discussed in this chapter. Some of these chemicals are presently made from nonrenewable feedstock like natural gas and petroleum, while others are new chemicals that have potential to replace nonrenewable feedstock-based chemicals. Transesterification process is used to produce propylene chain of chemicals from glycerin. Fermentation is used to produce ethanol which is converted to ethylene and can be used for ethylene chain of chemicals. The chemicals discussed in this chapter include recent advances in chemistry, and processes discussed include new frontiers for research in biomass to chemical production.

Bio-oil is a renewable and carbon-neutral energy source. It is made by the fast pyrolysis of biomass at elevated temperatures followed by condensation of vapors and aerosols that are removed rapidly from the pyrolysis chamber. Raw bio-oil contains significant amounts of oxygenated compounds which reduce its fuel quality. Upgrading raw bio-oil using hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) is one solution to increase fuel quality. Guaiacol and furfural are important model oxygen-containing compounds present in raw bio-oil. HDO of guaiacol and furfural with a dual Cu-based water–gas shift and Mo/Co/K HDO catalyst system in a static catalyst basket was studied in the gas phase in a batch autoclave using H₂/CO at 4.0 MPa (total partial pressure of CO + H₂) and temperatures of 200 °C, 250 °C, and 300 °C. Syngas HDO using two syngas mixtures (H₂/CO/N₂ ratios of 47:47:6 (50/50 syngas) and 18:23:46 (bio-syngas)) was compared to hydrogen alone, which is traditionally used in bio-oil upgrading. Liquid and gas products were analyzed using GC/MS. Temperature and catalyst both exert significant effects on conversion and product selectivity. Guaiacol conversions of 79–86 % were observed in both 50/50 syngas and bio-syngas systems at 300 °C, with 24–29 % cyclohexane formed in 4 h. Furfural exhibited ~100 % conversion in 4 h at 300 °C with both syngas systems. Reaction products from upgrading with syngases had a higher total heat of combustion but lower energy density than the products from reactions with pure H₂. For example, 0.04 mol (4.96 g) of guaiacol has a total heat of combustion of 143.4 kJ with an energy density of 28.9 kJ/g (3.59 MJ/mol). Reaction products from upgrading the same amount of guaiacol with H₂ had a total energy content and energy density of 146.6 ± 0.4 kJ and 38.8 ± 0.2 kJ/g (3.66 MJ/mol), respectively, compared to 153.6 ± 0.4 kJ and 35.8 ± 0.1 kJ/g (3.84 MJ/mol) for the product upgraded with bio-syngas. This, and product selectivity, suggests incorporation of some C from CO in these syngas reactions.

Biochar is a stable form of carbon produced via the pyrolysis of biomass for use in sustainable environmental and agricultural practices. The concept of biochar was originally triggered from the ancient practice in which humans deliberately mixed carbonized biomass into soils to enrich the soil quality and fertility. According to the International Biochar Initiative (IBI), biochar can be defined as “A solid material obtained from the thermo-chemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment.” Biomass-derived biochar production has been demonstrated as a potentially viable strategy for developing negative carbon emission technologies for climate change mitigation and also as a material for effective amendment of relatively poor agricultural soils. Most interestingly, ongoing biochar research work has expanded broadly, stretching from its traditional core in the environmental and agricultural science to include studies in the use of biochar for energy generation and as adsorbents for pollution treatment applications. However, the use of biochar for carbon sequestration and soil amendment has attracted more interests by research scientists globally. The use of biochar as a material for soil amendment is closely linked with its potential for climate change mitigation by carbon sequestration. Specifically, the properties of biochar include resistance to microbial degradation and chemical transformations, high surface areas, high water retention capacity, cation-exchange capacity, and its effectiveness as support and substrate for soil microbes. These characteristics endow biochar with a greater potential to become a highly useful source of materials for improving agricultural productivity through soil quality enhancement while simultaneously sequestering CO₂ from the atmosphere to mitigate climate change. On a separate front, a recent study of acoustic and photochemical interactions of CO₂ with carbonaceous materials seems to warrant feasibility research in the future for exploring novel routes of CO₂ utilization and CO₂ capture. Moreover, biochar’s ability to absorb electromagnetic radiation and emit far-infrared wavelength radiation has promoted research, development, and commercialization of biochar’s applications in medical and health therapies.

Electricity is perhaps the most versatile energy carrier in modern economies, and it is therefore fundamentally linked to human and economic development. Electricity growth has outpaced that of any other fuel, leading to ever-increasing shares in the overall mix. This trend is expected to continue throughout the following decades, with large – especially rural – segments of the world population in developing countries climbing the “energy ladder” and becoming connected to power grids (UNDP, World energy assessment: 2004 update. United Nations Development Programme, New York, 2004). Electricity therefore deserves particular attention with regard to its contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, which is reflected in the ongoing development of low-carbon technologies for power generation. The main purpose of this chapter is to provide a bridge between detailed technical reports and broad resource and economic assessments on wind power. The following aspects of wind energy are covered: the global potential of the wind resource, technical principles of wind energy converters, capacity and load characteristics, life-cycle characteristics, current scale of deployment, contribution to global electricity supply, cost of electricity output, and future technical challenges. Wind power is the second-strongest-growing of renewable electricity technologies, with recent annual growth rates of about 34 %. The technology is mature and simple, and decades of experience exist in a few countries. Due to strong economies of scale, wind turbines have grown to several megawatts per device, and wind farms have now been deployed offshore. The wind energy industry is still small but competitive: 120 GW of installed wind power contributes only about 1.5 % or 260 TWh to global electricity generation at average capacity factors of around 25 % and levelized costs between 3 and 7 US¢/kWh, including additional costs brought about by the variability of the wind resource. The technical potential of wind is larger than current global electricity consumption, but the main barrier to widespread wind power deployment is wind variability, which poses limits to grid integration at penetration rates above 20 %. Life-cycle emissions for wind power alone are among the lowest for all technologies; however, in order to compare wind energy in a systems view, one needs to consider its low capacity credit: adding emissions from fossil-fuel balancing and peaking reserves that are required to maintain overall systems reliability places wind power at about 65 g/kWh. Wind power’s contribution to twenty-first-century emission abatement is potentially large at 450–500 Gt CO₂.

Wave energy has a great potential in many coastal areas thanks to a number of advantages: the abundant resource, with the highest energy density of all renewables, leading to higher availability factors than, e.g., wind or solar energy, and the low environmental and particularly visual impact, not least in the case of offshore floating wave energy converters (WECs). In addition, a novel advantage will be investigated in this work: the possibility of a synergetic use for carbon-free energy production and coastal protection. All in all, these advantages make wave energy a promising alternative to conventional energy sources. In this chapter the fundamentals of the wave resource and its characterization are outlined. The technologies for wave energy conversion are classified according to three criteria, the most representative WECs are presented, and the technological challenges discussed. Next, the environmental impacts of wave energy extraction are analyzed, with a focus on the reduction of coastal erosion.If there are two main strategies to cope with climate change, mitigation and adaptation, wave farms participate on both. Indeed, wave energy contributes to mitigating climate change by two means, one acting on the cause, the other on the effect: (i) by bringing down carbon emissions (cause) through its production of renewable energy and (ii) by reducing coastal erosion (effect). Given that one of the causes of climate change is precisely coastal erosion – through sea-level rise and increased storminess – the contribution of wave farms to its mitigation is indeed welcome. As for adaptation, wave farms – which typically consist of floating WECs – adapt naturally to sea-level rise; this is a major advantage relative to conventional coastal defense schemes, based on fixed structures (seawalls, detached breakwaters, groynes, etc.)

While most renewable energies are, directly or indirectly, derived from the sun, geothermal energy originates in the interior of the earth. Geothermal energy is the most stable of the renewable energies because it can be utilized constantly, regardless of weather or season. Geothermal energy can be used not only for power generation but also for direct heat application. The development of geothermal power generation entered a phase of rapid growth in 2005, and its total installed capacity worldwide reached 10.7 GW_e in 2010. The capacity of 10.7 GW_e appears small when compared with solar and wind power generation; however, the high-capacity factor of geothermal power plants, which is 0.7–0.9, provides several times greater electricity from the same installed capacity than photovoltaic and wind plants. Direct heat application can be used almost anywhere on land. Geothermal resources are classified into two categories: hydrothermal convection resources and thermal conduction resources. Today’s geothermal power capacity is mainly hydrothermal-based and unevenly distributed in volcanic countries. As a borehole is drilled into deeper formations, formation temperature becomes higher but permeability becomes lower. Hydrothermal convection resources have a limit depth. Rock’s brittle-plastic transition gives a bottom depth to permeability, and it is the absolute limit depth for the hydrothermal convection resources. Enhanced or engineered geothermal systems (EGS), in which fractures are artificially created in less-permeable rocks and heat is extracted by artificially circulating water through the fractures, are still at a demonstration stage, but they will extend geothermal power generation to thermal conduction resources and to depths even deeper than the brittle-plastic transition. Assessment of worldwide geothermal resource potential is still under study. However, an estimate shows that potential is 312 GW_e for hydrothermal resources for electric power generation to a depth of 4 km, 1,500 GW_e for EGS resources to a depth of 10 km, and 4,400 GW_th for direct geothermal use resources. Were 70 % of hydrothermal resources, 20 % of EGS resources, and 20 % of direct-use resources to be developed by 2050, it could reduce carbon dioxide emission by 3.17 Gton/year, which is 11 % of the present worldwide emission.

Climate change is regarded as the most severe challenge for the human being. The view on accelerating hydropower development and ensuring adequate water storage infrastructure to mitigate and adapt climate change has been widely accepted by the international community. Based on the challenge induced by climate change and the advantages on energy consumption and GHGs emission, the current development status, this chapter describes the importance and significance on development hydropower and ensuring adequate water storage facility for world sustainable development, mitigating, and adapting climate change. And it also points out the path on developing water and energy in a reliable, cheap, and environment-friendly way.

Nuclear energy is attracting revived interest as a potential alternate for electric power generation in the event of increased concerns about global warming. Compared to energy produced by combustion of a carbon atom in coal, fission of a U-235 atom will produce about 10 millions times more energy. However, storage of the nuclear waste is an environmental issue. This chapter has four sections with a major focus on introduction of nuclear power plants and reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels. Different nuclear fuel cycles and nuclear power reactors are introduced in the first section, and the cost–benefits of different energy sources are compared. Fuel burnup and formation of fission products are discussed along with operational impacts and risk analyses in the second section. The third section discusses design of nuclear structural components and various degradation modes. Section four discusses reprocessing issues of nuclear spent fuels. Reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel may be an economically viable option and reduces high-radioactive load in the nuclear waste repositories as well. However, there is a concern about proliferation of weapons-grade plutonium separated during reprocessing. Containment of radionuclides in different waste forms is also discussed in this section.

CO₂ capture and geological storage (CCS) is one of the most promising technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change in a fossil fuel-dependent world. If fully implemented, CCS may contribute to reduce 20 % of global emissions from fossil fuels by 2050 and 55 % by the end of this century. The complete CCS chain consists of capturing CO₂ from large stationary sources such as coal-fired power plants and heavy industries and transport and store it in appropriate geological reservoirs such as petroleum fields, saline aquifers, and coal seams, therefore returning carbon emitted from fossil fuels (as CO₂) back to geological sinks.Recent studies have shown that geological reservoirs can safely store for many centuries the entire greenhouse gas (GHG) global emissions. In this chapter, we present a comprehensive summary of the latest advances in CCS research and technologies that can be used to store significant quantities of CO₂ for geological periods of time and therefore considerably contribute to GHG emission reduction.

Chemical absorption is one of the most effective methods for CO₂ separation. This chapter first explains the principle of chemical absorption. Amine-based systems, carbonate-based systems, aqueous ammonia, membranes, enzyme-based systems, and ionic liquids-based system are discussed as the typical and emerging state of the art for chemical absorption. Furthermore, new solvent selection, novel reactors, and system intergradation have been analyzed. The key issues to hinder the application of chemical absorption are discussed, such as water-consumption-related issues, environmental effects, and economical factors. Finally, some industry applications and future directions are discussed.

Global warming and climate change due to the emission of greenhouse gases, especially CO₂, has become a widespread concern in the recent years. Capturing CO₂ is one of the major approaches to tackle this issue. Among the currently available CO₂ capture technologies, adsorption processes using solid sorbents capable of capturing CO₂ have shown many advantages. In the past few years, many groups have been engaged in the development of new solid sorbents for CO₂ capture with superior performance and desirable economics. The main purpose of this chapter is to provide a bridge between detailed technical reports and broad resource and economic assessments on CO₂ capture using solid sorbents. The fundamental aspects of solid sorbents for CO₂ capture are firstly discussed, which include both the selection and the evaluation of sorbents. The following characteristics of solid sorbents are covered: the equilibrium adsorption capacity, selectivity, adsorption/desorption kinetics, multicycle durability, mechanical properties, hydrothermal and chemical stability, and energy consumption of regeneration. Typical families of solid sorbents such as activated carbonaceous materials, polymeric materials, zeolites, silica, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and alkali-metal carbonate loaded with or without functionality for the adsorption of CO₂ are then reviewed, respectively. In addition, a brief review on technical challenges and pilot plant developments are presented. Finally, a few recommendations are provided for further research efforts on CO₂ capture with solid sorbents.

Among various CO₂-capture technologies, membrane separation is considered as one of the promising solutions because of its energy efficiency and operation simplicity. Many research and development are conducted for the (1) CO₂/N₂ (CO₂ separation from flue gas), (2) CO₂/CH₄ (CO₂ separation from natural gas), and (3) CO₂/H₂ (CO₂ separation from integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) processes). In this section, recent research and development of various types of membranes (polymeric membranes, inorganic membranes, ionic liquid membranes, facilitated transport membranes) for these applications are reviewed, as well as future prospects of membrane separation technologies.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) geological storage is the last process in carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS). Technical issues to conduct it safely are firstly introduced. Geophysical and geochemical trapping mechanisms to store CO₂ within the reservoir, geophysical monitoring and modeling, and geomechanical modeling are then described as key issues. Finally, future directions are discussed.

The world is likely to emit almost 40 Gt/year of CO₂ into the atmosphere. Even if only a small fraction of the globally emitted CO₂ is captured, there will be a large quantity of CO₂ available to society for use in a variety of ways. Thus, CO₂ should not be regarded as a waste product, but as an asset that, with human ingenuity, could be used in a sustainable way. Since sustainability is at the intersection of environmental, economic, and intergenerational stewardship, the selection of a CO₂ utilization process must offer net CO₂ and waste reductions compared to conventional methods of producing the same end product, must be economical, and must not leave any additional problems for future society to solve. The criteria for selection may involve a variety of local considerations, such as government incentives, the availability of suitable renewable energy source, availability of water and other chemicals, land use, local demand for a specific product, etc. Therefore, CO₂ utilization is a locally sustainable solution, rather than a one-size-fits-all approach. Utilization of CO₂ may involve mostly physical processes, such as in enhanced oil recovery (EOR), solvent use, and beverage industry, where the CO₂ is essentially retained in its original valence state, or chemical processes, where its valence state undergoes a change (Fig. 1). We will focus in this chapter on chemical conversion, which broadly includes thermochemical and electrochemical processes. The critical technology development parameters as well as the barriers for adoption of utilization technologies are also discussed.

In order to generate pure streams of CO₂ suitable for sequestration/storage, various routes are possible, involving either precombustion strategies such as the use of gasification technology combined with shift reactors to produce H₂ or alternatively post-combustion strategies such as CO₂ scrubbing with, for example, amine-based carriers. One of the more direct approaches is to carry out the combustion in pure or nearly pure oxygen-oxy-fuel combustion to produce primarily CO₂ and H₂O in the combustion gases, resulting in almost complete CO₂ capture. Until recently, the primary avenue for deploying this technology was with conventional pulverized fuel-fired boilers, and there is already one large demonstration plant operating in Europe with more being planned in the future. However, more recently oxy-fired fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has also become increasingly important as a potential technology, offering as it does fuel flexibility and the possibility of firing local or indigenous fuels, including biomass in a CO₂-neutral manner. Both oxy-fuel combustion technologies have been examined here, considering factors such as their economics and potential for improvement, as well as challenges to the technology, including the need to generate CO₂ streams of suitable purity for pipeline transport to available sequestration sites. Finally, the emission issues for both classes of the technology are discussed.

Gasification is an enabling technology for the cleanup of fossil and biomass fuels for energy production. A history of gasifier development is told from the perspective of a technology evolving to meet the ever-changing market needs. The chemistry and physics of coal conversion include pyrolysis, combustion, gasification, mineral transformations, as well as a discussion of the materials developed to meet the most challenging gasifier applications. Integrated gasification and combined cycle processes are discussed with respect to electrical power production. The distinguishing features for different types of gasifiers are described including fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, entrained-flow, and transport gasifiers. The twelve major gasifiers being marketed today are described. The hydrodynamics and kinetics of each are reviewed along with salient differences in performance, such as gas composition, when using a variety of fuels under different conditions. Critical operational features that are discussed include oxidizing media, air, or oxygen blown; the system pressure; fuel feedstock; and downstream cleanup. Thermal integration is discussed with respect to its impact on the gasifier performance. Gas cleanup is also considered with respect to the removal of potential pollutants and the shifting to environmentally benign transportation and process fuels.

This chapter examines the reaction pathways and the selectivity of the catalysts for the conversion of syngas to liquid hydrocarbons and ethanol fuels. Rh is by far the most active catalyst for ethanol synthesis. Co- and Fe-based catalysts exhibit excellent activity for hydrocarbon fuel synthesis from high H₂/CO and low H₂/CO ratio syngas, respectively. Regardless of the differences in the catalyst selectivity, all of these CO hydrogenation catalysts produce methane as one of the major products. So far, no approaches are effective in suppressing CH₄ formation. Development of a cost-effective liquid-fuel process from syngas with a low net fuel cycle CO₂ emission requires consideration of (1) the overall system, including the source of raw materials and by-products and (2) analysis of carbon footprint of each step from raw materials to the desired products and undesired by-products.

Chemical looping combustion (CLC) and looping cycles in general represent an important new class of technologies, which can be deployed for direct combustion as well as be used in gasification applications. In this type of system, a solid carrier is used to bring oxygen to the fuel gas, so that it can be subsequently released as a pure CO₂ stream suitable for use or, more likely, for sequestration. The solid is then regenerated in a reactor using air, so that the technology effectively achieves oxygen separation from air without the use of a cryogenic process or membrane technology. In a sense, cycles using liquids, such as amine scrubbing, could also be regarded as a type of looping cycle, the key being that the carrier must be regenerated and reutilized for as long as possible. However, this chapter will restrict itself to considering the uses of solid carriers only and, more specifically, those in which oxygen is transported and not CO₂ as is the case for calcium looping. Particular focuses of this chapter will be on the use of this technology for H₂ production and gasification applications, as well as its use with solid fuels. Another issue that will be discussed is high-pressure cycles, which are ultimately necessary if such systems are to be integrated into high-efficiency electrical energy cycles.

Mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) ceramic membrane has rapidly become an attractive alternative technology to conventional cryogenic distillation for oxygen separation from air. Given the heat integration opportunity in most energy generation processes, this technology offers lower cost and energy penalty due to its capability to produce pure oxygen at high temperature (>800 °C). Using pure oxygen for combustion in turn facilitates the production of concentrated carbon dioxide gas downstream which can be easily captured and handled to mitigate the greenhouse gas effect. This chapter overviews and discusses all essential aspects to understand oxygen selective MIEC ceramic technology. The basics behind the formation of defects responsible for high-temperature ionic transport are explained together with the transport theory. Two major family structures, e.g., fluorite and perovskite, which become the building blocks of most MIEC materials are discussed. Specific structure and properties as well as the advantages and the drawbacks of each family are explained. Some important structural considerations, e.g., crystal structure packing and Goldschmidt tolerance factor, are elaborated due to its strong relationship with the properties. Two additional concepts, e.g., dual-phase membrane and external short circuit, are given to address the drawbacks associated with fluorite and perovskite MIEC materials. Various geometries and types of MIEC membranes can be prepared, e.g., disk, tube, hollow fiber, or flat plate, each of which fits particular application. A short paragraph is presented at the end of the chapter on another possible application of this technology to facilitate a particular reaction to synthesize value-added products.

Photocatalytic water splitting, which involves the simultaneous reduction and oxidation of water-producing hydrogen and oxygen gas, provides a means of harnessing the sun’s power to generate an energy source in a clean and renewable fashion. Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons such as methane not only promises reduced emission of an important greenhouse but also a new source of fuel. Concerns over the effects of global climate change and the eventual demise of fossil fuels make the search for clean alternative energy sources a top priority. This chapter details the progress in these two increasingly important areas: hydrogen production by photocatalytic water splitting and photocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction.

This paper addresses the development of an innovative ionic membrane consisting of electrocatalysts and electrolyte assembly that can be used in an electrochemical cell to produce useful chemicals via simultaneous splitting of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) content feedstock. The cell consists of an endurance membrane electrode assembly (MEA) material with CO₂ and H₂S feedstock and operates near 120–145 °C. Thus, a benign method of CO₂ mitigation is achieved, and at the same time useful chemicals are produced from two pollutant gases. We have successfully conducted a preliminary study in our laboratory. The overall Gibbs energy, ΔG, of the process is (−49.27 kcal/mol), with a net energy output of about +1.06 V per mole. The instability of the cathode electrode due to the poisoning of electrode materials, corrosive aqueous media, and the chemistry nature of the electrode kinetics can be addressed by implementing electrocatalyst design scheme, which takes into consideration the location of the active ingredients and support materials of the electrocatalyst in order to enhance activity, stability, and selectivity. The aim is to research, formulate, and design anode and cathode electrocatalyst materials which are not susceptible to degradation in corrosive aqueous environment. Solid electrolytes from cesium hydrogen sulfate and from NafionTM family that conducts only hydrogen protons with added nanoscale hygroscopic oxide (silica) to maintain their integrities were studied. Operation at high pressures ensured that the membrane remained hydrated. Proper positioning of active and support materials during catalyst impregnation will eliminate any catalytic poisoning of active materials.

This chapter provides an overview on the storage technology power-to-gas for the decarbonization of all energy sectors. Other than “negative emissions” with CCS or biomass, which have clear limits in potentials, costs and environmental benefits, storage and energy conversion technologies like power-to-gas and power-to-x enable the decarbonization by neutralizing the CO₂ footprint of all energy services. Via the conversion of renewable electricity into chemical energy carriers like renewable hydrogen or renewable hydrocarbons, the existing fossil infrastructure with vast and sufficient storage and transport capacities can be used with carbon neutral renewable energy. After showing the demand for storage technologies, the technology components of power-to-gas are described, building the basis for the storage system power-to-gas itself that is described in detail, including efficiency, potential, CO₂ emissions, and costs. In conclusion, a technical pathway of decarbonization including costs is described for the industrial nation of Germany and necessary policy frameworks are derived.

Catalytic technologies for the abatement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) can effectively limit the increasing tropospheric concentration of GHGs and reduce their contribution to global warming. After introducing the general possible applications of catalytic technologies for GHG abatement, two specific cases are discussed: (1) reduction of anthropogenic emissions of non-CO₂ GHGs (N₂O and CH₄) and (2) reduction or conversion of CO₂.Combustion is one of the main options for controlling methane emissions. The use of catalytic combustion may yield economic benefits, due to the usually low concentration of methane in its emissions, and avoid the formation of by-products in traces like formaldehyde, which may be more harmful than methane itself. The types of catalysts, mechanism of action, and reactor options (regenerative catalytic combustion, reverse flow catalytic combustion, and catalytic combustion using a rotating concentrator) are discussed.The catalytic control of N₂O emissions shows different specificities, because different types of emission sources are present. The catalytic abatement or reuse of N₂O from industrial emissions (particularly adipic and nitric acid production), the treatment of emissions from power plants or waste combustion, the alternatives of catalytic decomposition or reduction, and the role of the other gas components (O₂, NO _x , SO _x ) are analyzed.The problem of the catalytic conversion of fluorocarbons is also briefly discussed.The case of carbon dioxide is different because, in this case, the issue is the development of cost- and energy-effective catalytic routes for its conversion to usable products. There are many catalytic routes for using CO₂ as a building block in organic syntheses to obtain valuable chemicals and materials. Attention has focused recently on the catalytic conversion of carbon dioxide to fuels. In this case as well, different options exist, such as hydrogenation to form oxygenates (e.g., methanol) and/or hydrocarbons, dry reforming with methane, reverse water gas shift, or, in a longer-term perspective, different methods using solar energy directly or indirectly (via bioconversion). Limitations and possible advantages of these different options are analyzed.

A future of renewable energy as a primary source for the world’s energy society can no longer be ignored. As fossil fuel supplies diminish and the cost of atomic energy continues to rise, while there is no safe and well-documented solution to the deposition of nuclear waste, renewable energy can step in to provide feasible alternatives to energy demands. Renewables do pose significant challenges especially in addressing the fluctuating power supply that is inherent in their nature. Robust, integrated solutions using available, mature technologies have proven to be the solution to the challenges that wind and solar energy causes. Denmark has in the past and continues to be a leader in integrated renewable energy solutions. By 2014, Denmark with its 5.65 million inhabitants still was on the world top 10 list measured by accumulated wind power capacity; 39 % of the electricity came from the wind. In particular, the use of combined heat and power systems and the implementation of district heating have proven successful for Denmark and can be transferred elsewhere. This chapter seeks to explore questions surrounding the implementation of sustainable integrated solutions very concretely in relation to energy in general and renewable energy in particular.

Thermoacoustic heat engines offer mechanically simple energy conversion that can utilize a wide variety of heat sources – including solar energy, biomass, and even the “waste” heat from internal combustion engines and industrial processes. This chapter will address the gas thermodynamics that enable such machines and discuss the practical elements that comprise thermoacoustic machines that act either as a converter of heat energy to another form of energy (such as electrical or mechanical energy) or as a heat pump that “moves” heat from a cold region to a warmer one. The distinction between the two topologies of thermoacoustic machines, stack-based and regenerator-based, will also be clarified and the differences between the two made clear. Finally, the latter portion of the chapter will discuss existing and potential applications for thermoacoustic machines.

Hydrogen (H₂) is mainly used in chemical industry currently. In the near future, it will also become a significant fuel due to advantages of reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, enhanced energy security, and increased energy efficiency. To meet future demand, sufficient H₂ production in an environmentally and economically benign manner is the major challenge. This chapter provides an overview of H₂ production pathways from fossil hydrocarbons, renewable resources (mainly biomass), and water. And high-purity H₂ production by the novel CO₂ sorption-enhanced gasification is highlighted. The current research activities, recent breakthrough, and challenges of various H₂ production technologies are all presented.Fossil hydrocarbons account for 96 % of total H₂ production in the world. Steam methane reforming, oil reforming, and coal gasification are the most common methods, and all technologies have been commercially available. However, H₂ produced from fossil fuel is nonrenewable and results in significant CO₂ emissions, which will limit its utilization.H₂ produced from biomass is renewable and CO₂ neutral. Biomass thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and gasification have been widely investigated and will probably be economically competitive with steam methane reforming. However, research on biomass biological processes such as photolysis, dark fermentation, photo-fermentation, etc., is in laboratory scale and the practical applications still need to be demonstrated.H₂ from water splitting is also attractive because water is widely available and very convenient to use. However, water splitting technologies, including electrolysis, thermolysis, and photoelectrolysis, are more expensive than using large-scale fuel-processing technologies and large improvement in system efficiency is necessary.CO₂ sorption-enhanced gasification is the core unit of zero emission systems. It has been thermodynamically and experimentally demonstrated to produce H₂ with purity over 90 % from both fossil hydrocarbons and biomass. The major challenge is that the reactivity of CO₂ sorbents decays through multi-calcination–carbonation cycles.

Fuel cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy via an electrochemical reaction. They are more efficient than traditional heat engine-based power systems and can have zero or near-zero emissions during operation. A leading alternative green energy technology, fuel cells are finding applications in many areas, including transportation, portable power, and stationary power generation. These divergent uses have driven development of several different types of fuel cell technologies. A brief overview of these will be provided in this chapter; however, the focus will be on low-temperature proton exchange membrane (PEM) technologies predominant in portable power and automotive applications. Fuel cell operating principles will be reviewed, focusing on thermodynamics, efficiency, reaction kinetics, and transport phenomena in order to develop a framework for evaluating different fuel cells and comparing them with other power systems. Theoretically, much improvement in fuel cell performance is possible and is needed along with means of lowering economic costs in order for fuel cells to see more widespread use. Some of the major technical challenges in these regards are outlined along with approaches being investigated to meet these challenges. Life cycle assessment and its application to fuel cells will be discussed to evaluate environmental impacts associated with manufacturing, operation, and disposal.

This chapter describes the concept, electrochemical reactions, and fabrication of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). It initially describes how SOFC systems differ from other electrical devices and how they differ from other types of fuel cells, for example, they are all solid state (ceramics), run at high temperature, and have the potential for directly running off hydrocarbon fuels. Then the basic principles of the fuel cell are studied and each of the components described in more detail (the anode, cathode, and electrolyte). The discussion then moves on to how single SOFC’s can be stacked in a number of ways, to form systems, and what the advantages and disadvantages of each are. The chapter discusses one such SOFC system in more detail, that of the microtubular SOFC. Here, it examines how these microtubes are made, what they are made from, and how they have the potential for running at low temperature for small applications such as auxiliary power units (APU), for example. Then it deals with some micro- and macro-modeling on the microtubular SOFC, describing issues such as mass and thermal transport, the effect of altering a number of parameters, and how the modeling results compare to real data. Finally, the chapter concludes with some future directions on solid oxide fuel cells.

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) is a high-temperature fuel cell. Because of high-temperature operation, various fuel gases can be widely used and internal reforming of hydrocarbon fuel is also possible, resulting in improving fuel utilization and providing higher power generation efficiency. Many MCFC plants are being installed as the stationary cogeneration power supply using various fuels in various countries in the world, and among them, the world’s largest fuel cell power plant has 2.8 MW electric capacity. The power generation efficiency of the systems including smaller 300 kW units reaches 47 % (LHV, net, same as above unless otherwise noted). In addition, the hybrid systems which contain both MCFC and gas turbine have been demonstrated, and a new carbon dioxide (CO₂) recovering hybrid system concept with extremely high value of 77 % efficiency is proposed. The advantage of MCFC is not only the use of city gas but also the use of digestion gas from the sewage disposal plant. In the future, it is expected to develop a large-scale centralized electric power generating plant using the coal gasification gas. The MCFC is one of the key technologies to reduce CO₂ emission for the future.

Nuclear fusion is the power of the sun and all shining stars in the universe. Controlled nuclear fusion toward ultimate energy sources for human beings has been developed intensively worldwide for this half a century. A fusion power plant is free from concern of exhaustion of fuels and production of CO₂. Therefore it has a very attractive potential to be an eternal fundamental energy source and will contribute to resolving problems of climate change. On the other hand, unresolved issues in physics and engineering still remain. It will take another several decades to realize a fusion power plant by integration of advanced science and engineering such as control of high-temperature plasma exceeding 100 million °C and breeding technology of tritium by generated neutrons. The research and development has just entered the phase of engineering demonstration to extract 500 MW of thermal energy from fusion reaction in the 2020s. The demonstration of electric power generation is targeted in the 2040s.

Biofuels have been commercialized, predominantly bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas. Mostly, they are based on edible feedstock such as corn, maize, or soybean (so-called 1st-generation (1G) biofuels). The arising competition over arable land with food crops has caused significant debate, as well as the net contribution to climate change mitigation, where it was found that sometimes 1G biofuels perform even worse than petroleum-based fuels, due to land use change, fertilizer usage, and process yields, for instance. Biofuel research has hence targeted lignocellulosic feedstock, which exists in abundance. Due to the stability of these biopolymers, cost-effective 2G biofuels are now only at the verge of commercialization. Processes to break up the biomass into fuels are thermochemical and biochemical, using enzymes. 3G biofuels have been envisioned, where microorganisms are deployed. For instance, since algae can form up to 200 times more biomass per area than terrestrial biomass, they hold great promise for future biofuel production on marginal land or in the ocean. In this chapter, 2G and particularly 3G biofuel concepts, where bacteria and algae are used to obtain biofuels, are discussed. Standard industrial processes, like ethanol fermentation through microorganisms for regular 1G biofuels, are not covered here. Alternative biofuels from bacteria and algae, such as biomethanol or biohydrogen, are also addressed.

Synthetic polymers are used extensively. Approx. 98 % of the 300 million tons of polymers manufactured each year for packaging, construction, appliances, and other technical goods are made from fossil sources, predominantly crude oil. Combustion (thermal recycling) is a preferred route of disposal, at it removes waste, however, CO₂ emissions arise. Biobased polymers, by contrast, are made from renewable resources. A second class of biopolymers for technical applications is biodegradable, being produced from conventional or renewable feedstock. Common biobased plastics are drop-in materials such as biobased PE, biobased PP, and biobased PET, and frequently used biodegradable plastics are PLA (polylactic acid), TPS (thermoplastic starch), and PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates). Also, composites can contain natural fibers such as sisal or hemp. Biobased polymer additives, e.g., plasticizers, are also in use. Renewable feedstock reduces the carbon footprint of the plastics produced. Hence, biopolymers can contribute to climate change mitigation. Biodegradable bioplastics avoid accumulation of the material in the environment, which has detrimental effects, e.g., on marine wildlife. The degradation of bioplastics in general does not release pollutants, and mineralization of the polymer yields CO₂ and water in case of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen compounds. In this chapter, biobased polymers, which have a substitution potential of up to 90 %, are briefly discussed with respect to climate change mitigation.